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ELEMENTS 


SCIENTIFIC  AGRICULTURE, 


CONNECTION  BETWEEN  SCIENCE 


ART  OF  PRACTICAL  FARMING. 


PRIZE  ESSAY  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  STATE  AGRICUL.  SOCIETY. 


BY  JOHN  P.  NORTON,  M.  A., 

PEOF.    OF    SCIENTIFIC    AGRICULTURE    IN    TALE    COLLEGE. 


ALBANY: 

ERASTUS    H.    PEASE    <§-    COMPANY, 

No.    82   STATE    STREET, 

1S50. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1850, 

BY  JOHN  P.  NORTON, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of 

Connecticut. 


J.  MUNSELL,  PRINTER  AND  STEREOTYFER. 


PREFACE. 


This  little  treatise  is  an  attempt  to  supply  a  great 
and  growing  want  in  our  country;  a  want  of  some 
elementary  work,  that  shall  clearly  and  distinctly  ex- 
plain the  great  principles  that  are  involved  in  the 
applications  of  science  to  agriculture.  The  necessity 
for  such  a  work  has  become  apparent  to  all  who  have 
engaged  in  the  dissemination  of  knowledge  upon  this 
subject;  to  all  who  have  endeavored  to  arouse  the 
farming  community,  by  bringing  forward  incitements 
to  the  study  of  this  new  science. 

The  agricultural  interest  is  now  awaking  to  a  full 
sense  of  its  deficiences,  and  demands  imperatively, 
that  knowledge,  in  clear  and  comprehensive  forms, 
be  placed  within  its  reach. 

We  have  large  works  of  great  merit,  in  Johnston's 
Lectures,  and  Stephens's  Farmers'  Guide;  but  these 
are  too  bulky  for  the  man  who  has  just  begun  to  en- 
tertain the  idea  that  there  may,  after  all,  be  something 
learned  from  books.  A  small  work  of  this  kind  is  far 
more  likely  to  attract  his  attention,  and  gradually  to 


IV  PREFACE. 

lead  him  on,  till  he  ends  by  an  eager  study  of  the 
larger  treatises. 

In  the  general  arrangement  of  the  chapters,  I  have 
followed  that  marked  out  in  Prof.  Johnston's  admirable 
Catechism  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology. 
The  expressed  opinion  of  many  teachers,  "that  the 
catechetical  form  was  not  adapted  to  the  schools  of 
this  country,  and  that  they  needed  a  work  of  more 
fullness  and  detail,"  induced  me  to  think  of  an  effort 
to  supply  their  wants. 

The  approbation  bestowed  by  the  New-York  State 
Society  upon  the  essay,  which,  with  some  additions 
and  alterations,  has  assumed  its  present  shape,  led  to 
a  more  speedy  completion  of  my  half-formed  plans, 
than  I  had  anticipated. 

The  teacher  will  perceive  that  the  experiments,  and 
the  illustrations,  occasionally  recommended,  are  of  the 
most  simple  character.  No  expensive  materials  are 
needed,  and,  excepting  a  few  cheap  chemicals,  almost 
any  house  could  furnish  every  requisite  article. 

No  questions  are  appended  to  the  chapters,  for  the 
reason  that  they  would  be  a  disagreeable  interruption 
to  the  general  reader,  and  would  perhaps  confine  the 
teacher  to  a  routine  in  his  examinations.  The  chap- 
ters are,  however,  divided  into  sections  and  para- 
graphs, in  a  way  calculated  to  fix  the  attention  of  the 
reader  upon  leading  points. 

Questions  should  be  asked  with  the  distinct  inten- 
tion of  impressing  at  least  the  chief  conclusions  and 


PREFACE.  T 

facts  of  each  chapter,  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can 
not  soon  be  forgotten. 

My  aim  has  been,  to  furnish  a  complete  sketch  of 
scientific  agriculture,  in  plain  and  intelligible  lan- 
guage; accompanied  by  as  many  details  and  expla- 
nations as  seemed  desirable  in  a  purely  elementary 
work. 

As  such,  I  beg  leave  to  present  it  to  the  American 
farmer,  and  to  the  American  teacher,  with  the  hope 
that  it  may  be  found  adapted  to  their  use. 

JOHN  P.  NORTON. 

New-Haven,  April  16,  1850. 


CONTENTS. 


True  meaning  of  the  word  Agriculture, page  1 

Division  of  bodies  into  organic  and  inorganic  substances, ...  4 

Organic  elements  of  plants. 

Carbon, 6 

Hydrogen,  7 

Oxygen, 9 

Nitrogen, 11 

Inorganic  part  of  plants,  or  ash. 

Potash,   16 

Soda,  17 

Lime, .  17 

Magnesia, •  •  •  • 17 

Iron. 18 

Manganese, 19 

Silica, 19 

Chlorine, 20 

Sulphuric  acid, 21 

Phosphoric  acid, 22 

Variations  in  the  composition  of  ash, 23 

Sources  of  the  organic  food  of  plants. 

Carbonic  acid  gas, 28 

Quantity  of,  in  the  atmosphere, 30 

Absorbed  by  the  leaves  of  plants, 31 

Furnishes  carbon  to  the  plant, , 32 

Carbon  also  derived  from  organic  substances  in  the  soil, ....  33 

Sources  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  of  plants, 35 

Sources  of  nitrogen  of  plants, 35 

Ammonia, 36 

Nitric  acid, 37 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

The  organic  substances  of  plants. 

Structure  and  functions  of  the  roots, p.  39 

Of  the  stem  and  bark, 40 

Of  the  leaves, 41 

Properties  and  composition  of  water, 42 

Woody  fibre, . 44 

Starch, 44 

Sugar  and  gum, 45 

Dextrine, 46 

Gluten,  legumin,  casein,  albumen. 47 

Sources  of  the  supply  of  carbon  to  plants, 48 

Of  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 50 

Of  nitrogen, 51 


The  soil. 

Composition,  general, 52 

Of  its  organic  part, 53 

Necessity  of  this  part,  and  how  it  is  to  be  kept  up, 54 

Derivation  and  classification  of  soils,   56 

Number  and  names  of  inorganic  substances  in, 59 

Reason  for  fertility  or  barrenness  in,   61 

Mechanical  improvement  of, 65 

Evil  effects  of  too  much  moisture  in, 66 

Draining, 68 

Proper  depth,   69 

Materials  to  be  used :   stones, 70 

Tiles, 71 

Subsoil  and  trench  ploughing, 73 

Relations  between  the  soil  and  plant, 74 

Composition  of  ash  from  crops, 78 

Classification  of  plants  according  to  the  composition  of  their 

ash, 79 

Effect  of  these  classes  upon  the  soil,   81 

Of  special  manures, 81 

Of  plaster  of  paris,  or  gypsum, 83 

Of  rotations  in  cropping, 85 


Manures. 

Necessity  for, 89 

Irrigation, 90 

Vegetable  manures;  green  crops, 91 

Straw, 93 

Seaweed ,  rape  dust,   94 

Animal  manures;   blood,  flesh,  hair,  wool, 95 

Bones,   96 

Dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid, 97 


CONTENTS.  IX 

Manures  from  domestic  animals, p.  101 

Liquid  manures,  and  tanks, 102 

Why  nitrogen  in  manures  is  valuable, 104 

Horse  manures, 104 

Manures  from  birds ;  guano, 105 

Fish  manures, 107 

Shellfish, 108 

Saline  and  mineral  manures ;  lime, , 109 

Various  states  in  which  lime  is  applied,   110 

Marl, 112 

Gypsum,  or  plaster  of  paris, 114 

Common  salt,  nitrates,  and  sulphates, 116 

Their  effects, 118 

Modes  of  application  of  powerful  manures, 120 

Wood  ashes, 120 

Coal  ashes,   122 

Peat  ashes, 123 

Soot, 124 

Composition  of  different  crops. 

Wheat  and  wheaten  bread, 127 

Barley, 129 

Oatmeal,  buckwheat,  rice, 130 

Indian  corn,  sweet  corn, 131 

Peas  and  beans,   132 

Potatoes, 133 

Turnips,  carrots,  beets,  fyc 134 

Comparative  yield  of  various  crops, 134 

Grasses, 135 

Application  of  the  crops  in  feeding. 
Protein  or  nitrogenous  bodies  similar  in  plants  and  in  ani- 
mals,    140 

Respiration,  theory  of, 141 

Uses  of  starch  in, ; 142 

Of  fatty  and  oily  food, 143 

Of  feeding  young  animals,    144 

Of  feeding  full  grown  animals, 146 

Of  feeding  fattening  animals, 147 

Of  cut  food,   149 

Of  soiling,  or  feeding  with  green  cut  food, 151 

Necessity  of  shelter  during  winter, 152 

Influence  of  exercise,  darkness  and  warmth, 153 

Of  cooked  food, 156 

Of  soured  food, 158 

Influence  of  food  upon  manures, 159 

Effect  of  feeding  upon  pastures, 161 


X  CONTENTS. 

Milk  and  dairy  produce  generally. 

Composition  of  milk,    p.  163 

Galactometer, 105 

Of  butter, 166 

Proper  temperature  for  churning, 167 

Reasons  for  its  frequent  bad  quality, 168 

Purification  of  salt, 169 

Casein  or  curd  of  milk, 169 

Varieties  and  composition  of  cheese, 170 

Reasons  why  soils  in  dairy  districts  become  exhausted  of 

phosphates, 172 

Feeding  of  milch  cows, 173 

Recapitulation 

Of  leading  points, 175 

Nature  of  chemical  analysis. 

Requisites  for  a  good  analysis, 187 

Care  and  skill  necessary, 189 

Simple  chemical  examination  of  a  soil,  methods  for, 192 

Examination  of  marls, 195 

Examination  of  guanos, 196 

Applications  of  geology  to  agriculture. 

Unstratified  and  stratified  rocks, 199 

Granites, 200 

Trap  or  basaltic  rocks,   202 

Different  strata  form  different  soils, 202 

Of  drift,  and  its  influence  on  soils, 204 

Alluvial  deposits, 206 

Value  of  geological  knowledge, 206 


ELEMENTS 

OP 

SCIENTIFIC  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION.    ORGANIC  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANTS. 

True  meaning  of  the  word  agriculture  :  how  much  more  it  means 
than  is  commonly  understood.  Plants  divided  into  an  organic 
and  inorganic  part:  meaning  of  these  words.  Names  of  organic 
elements:  Carbon  and  its  properties;  hydrogen  and  its  proper- 
ties; oxygen  and  its  properties;  nitrogen  and  its  properties, 
with  modes  for  obtaining  all.     Importance  of  these  bodies. 

SECTION    I.    DEFINITION    OF    AGRICULTURE. 

Agriculture,  according  to  the  usually  accepted 
meaning  of  the  word,  signifies  the  art  of  cultivating 
the  soil.  It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  this  is  its 
true  meaning,  and  yet  how  few  of  those  who  would 
promptly  give  the  above  definition  seem  to  have  any 
adequate  idea  of  all  that  is  involved  in  the  words  "  cul- 
tivating the  soil." 

A  soil  that  is  cultivated,  is  thoroughly  and  more  or 
less  deeply  ploughed  according  to  the  situation,  is 
mellow,  is  free  from  stumps  and  large  stones,  is  dry 
and  clear  of  hurtful  weeds.  How  many  fields  in  this 
condition  are  to  be  seen  in  most  American  villages? 
Are  they  in  the  majority,  or  do  they  constitute  a  very 
small  minority?  It  is  to  be  feared  that  there  are  few 
neighborhoods,  even  of  limited  extent,  fitted  to  chal- 
lenge inspection. 

1 


2  DEFINITION   OF   AGRICULTUPvE, 

How  frequently  and  how  largely  do  weeds,  bushes, 
brambles,  uneven  surfaces,  unsightly  stumps,  and  stones 
scarred  with  many  a  mark  of  plough  and  harrow  teeth, 
enter  into  the  composition  of  our  rural  scenery;  and 
this  not  in  new  settlements  alone,  but  in  older  and 
long  inhabited  districts! 

Even  if  we  suppose  that  we  have  our  farm  thorough- 
ly cultivated  in  the  manner  first  described,  is  it  suffi- 
cient'? No,  the  art  of  cultivating  the  soil  involves 
something  beyond  this.  The  thoroughly  accomplished 
farmer  must  study  the  nature  of  various  crops,  until 
he  finds  those  which  are  best  suited  to  his  land;  if 
these  are  not  such  as  pay  him  best,  he  must  seek  to 
bring  about  some  change  by  means  of  which  he  can 
profitably  grow  those  that  will.  This  done,  he  must 
set  himself  to  increase  the  quantity  grown  per  acre, 
for  on  this  increase  depends  his  profit.  It  costs  little 
more  to  cultivate  the  ground  for  a  crop  of  30  bushels, 
than  for  one  of  10  bushels. 

The  main  end  seems  to  be,  in  numerous  cases,  to 
obtain  indeed  a  great  yield  of  valuable  produce,  but 
with  the  least  possible  investment  of  money.  Many, 
too  many  farmers  go  entirely  upon  this  principle;  they 
ought,  however,  to  think  farther,  and  then  they  would 
see  that  there  is  another  point  worthy  of  considera- 
tion. That  point  is,  the  keeping  of  the  land  in  good 
condition.  Cheapness  in  obtaining  a  present  crop  is 
not  every  thing  :  the  prudent  man  will  have  an  eye  to 
the  future;  he  will  see  that  if  he  always  takes  away 
without  adding,  the  richest  land  must  ultimately  be- 
come poor,  or  at  least  greatly  reduced  in  value. 

The  man  who  does  this  is  like  that  one  in  the  old 
fable  who  killed  the  goose  that  laid  him  daily  a  golden 
egg.  He  thought  that  there  must  be  many  eggs  within 
the  goose,  but  there  was  of  course  only  one;  and  he 
found,  when  it  was  too  late,  that  he  had  destroyed  the 
source  of  his  riches  in  a  most  foolish  and  shortsighted 


ART   OF    CULTIVATING    THE   SOIL.  6 

manner.  So  will  it  always  be  with  the  farmer  who 
pursues  a  like  system.  Tempted  by  the  idea  of  ob- 
taining a  few  crops  with  little  expense  now,  he  ruins 
his  land  for  the  future. 

The  good  farmer,  then,  desires  to  grow  large  crops 
with  the  least  necessary  cost,  but  at  the  same  time  never 
forgets  that  it  is  the  best  economy  to  keep  his  land  in 
good  condition,  and  even  improving.  In  order  to  ac- 
complish this,  he  must  do  something  more  than  merely 
plough  and  harrow,  sow,  plant  and  reap  :  he  must 
think  and  study  also.  a.  He  must  learn  the  nature  of 
the  various  crops  he  raises  or  wishes  to  raise  :  these 
crops  differ;  he  should  seek  to  understand  the  differ- 
ences, and  how  they  are  caused,  b.  One  field  he  will 
find  to  vary  much  in  its  nature  from  another;  a  certain 
crop  grows  here,  and  fails  there  :  are  these  things 
accidental,  or  can  he  discover  the  reasons?  c.  In 
adding  certain  substances  called  manures  to  the  soil, 
he  finds  diverse  effects,  not  only  in  their  application  to 
different  fields,  but  also  to  different  crops :  here  is 
another  subject  for  study,  d.  His  animals  thrive  on 
some  kinds  of  food,  and  derive  little  benefit  from  others. 
A  small  bulk  of  some  varieties  sustains  and  increases 
their  size  or  strength,  while  upon  great  quantities  of 
other  varieties  they  grow  poor.  What  are  the  pro- 
perties upon  which  these  effects  depend? 

Thus  we  perceive  that  the  farmer  who  really  wishes 
to  understand  the  "  art  of  cultivating  the  soil,"  must 
go  a  long  way  beyond  ploughing.  He  must,  it  is 
true,  know  how  to  get  his  soil  into  a  good  state;  but 
he  must  also  know  something  as  to  the  nature  of  his 
crops,  of  the  various  soils  on  which  they  grow,  of  the 
manures  which  are  applied  to  increase  that  growth, 
and  of  the  food  which  he  supplies  to  his  animals. 

This,  it  may  be  said,  involves  too  much  study  for  a 
practical  working  man.  I  reply,  that  it  is  not  neces- 
sary for  him  to  learn  the  minute  details  of  scientific 


ELEMENTS   OF    PLANTS. 


researches  and  discoveries.  It  is  enough  to  begin  with 
the  leading  principles  that  have  been  established;  with 
these  he  will  be  able  to  work  more  intelligently  than 
ever  before,  and  to  go  on  continually  adding  to  his 
knowledge. 


SECTION   II.   PLANTS    DIVIDED   INTO   AN    ORGANIC    AND   AN 
INOrvGANIC    PART. 

In  endeavoring  to  explain,  in  a  simple  manner, 
something  of  this  desirable  branch  of  knowledge,  we 
will  commence  with  the  plant,  and  give  in  a  clear 
connected  shape  the  information  that  has  been  collected 
by  the  most  approved  writers  and  experimenters  con- 
cerning it.  Hard  words  and  obscure  phrases  will  be 
avoided  whenever  it  is  possible. 

We  commence  our  examination  with  some  inquiry 
into  the  nature  of  the  materials  which  compose  all  of 
our  crops.  The  first  result  arrived  at  is  the  existence 
of  two  grand  classes  of  bodies,  to  one  of  which,  or  to 
a  mixture  of  both,  belongs  every  part  of  the  plant. 

In  connection  with  this  fact,  there  is  one  peculiarity 
in  all  vegetable  substances,  that  early  attracts  our 
attention.  Whether  we  take  the  hard  wood,  the  soft 
flexible  straw,  the  leaf,  or  the  root,  we  find  that  all  are 
more  or  less  combustible.  When  dry  they  generally 
burn  readily,  and  with  a  flame,  but  we  see  at  the  same 
time  that  all  does  not  disappear  :  the  stalk  of  straw, 
or  the  piece  of  wood,  for  the  most  part  burns  away; 
but  after  the  flame  has  gone  out,  there  is  always  an  ash 
left.  Thus  we  establish  a  grand  division  :  one  part 
burns  and  disappears;  another  part  is  incombustible, 
and  remains.  Chemists  have  named  the  part  that  burns 
away,  organic  matter;  and  the  part  that  remains,  or 
the  ash,  inorganic  matter. 

Fire,  then,  is  one  test,  by  means  of  which  we  dis- 


ORGANIC    ELEMENTS.  b 

tinguish  organic  from  inorganic  substances.     To  the 
first  of  these  two  classes  we  will    now  attend. 

The  name  organic  is  given,  because  organic  bodies, 
being  products  of  life,  have  an  organized  structure  that 
can  not  be  produced  by  artificial  means.  What  is 
meant  by  an  organized  structure,  may  be  seen  by 
examining  a  cross  section  from  the  stem  of  a  tree  : 
this  will  be  found  to  consist  of  little  tubes  and  cells,  all 
arranged  in  a  regular  manner.  Under  the  microscope, 
a  potato  will  appear  made  up  of  cells  having  grains 
of  starch  contained.  So  with  other  plants  or  parts  of 
plants,  they  all  have  an  organization  that  is  a  product 
of  life,  and  which  we  therefore  can  not  imitate.  In- 
organic bodies  have  no  such  structure,  and  can  in 
many  cases  be  produced  by  chemical  processes. 

SECTION   III.    ORGANIC    ELEMENTS    OF   PLANTS. 

The  organic  part  in  plants  is  by  far  the  largest,  as 
is  plainly  to  be  seen  on  burning  any  form  of  vegetable 
matter.  It  ordinarily  constitutes  from  90  to  97  lbs.  in 
every  hundred. 

During  the  burning,  this  solid  organic  matter  dis- 
appears :  it  is  driven  off  into  the  atmosphere,  until 
nothing  but  a  little  ash  remains;  that  which  has  gone, 
then,  has  evidently  become  air.  It  is  easy  to  see  that 
this  part  of  the  plant  can  only  have  been  formed  from 
air  at  first.  Such  a  conclusion  may  seem  very  strange 
at  first,  but  a  little  reflection  will  show  that  we  can 
arrive  at  no  other.  When  we  have  made  up  our  minds 
to  this,  it  becomes  important  to  know  what  kind  of  air 
it  is  that  forms  so  large  a  part  of  our  plants,  or  if  there 
is  more  than  one  kind. 

These   points   have  been  determined   through  the 
assistance  of  certain  chemical  experiments,  by  means 
of  which  it  has  been  proved  that  the  organic  part  of 
plants  consists  of  four  substances. 
1* 


6  CARBON. 

Their  names  are  Carbon,  Oxygen,  Nitrogen  and 
Hydrogen. 

The  whole  of  the  organic  part  of  vegetables  and 
plants,  the  whole  of  the  atmosphere,  all  water,  and  a 
very  large  part  of  the  solid  rocks  which  make  up  this 
globe,  consist  of  one,  two,  three,  or  all  of  these  four 
substances  united  in  different  proportions.  These 
names  then  stand  for  bodies  of  immense  importance; 
and  it  is  very  necessary  that  every  farmer  should  at 
least  know  something  about  them.  The  three  last, 
oxygen,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  we  find  in  their  pure 
state  as  gases  :  gas  is  the  chemical  term  for  the  dif- 
erent  kinds  of  air.  The  other  substance,  carbon,  is 
found  in  nature  as  a  solid,  and  to  this  we  will  first 
direct  our  attention. 

Carbon  is  a  solid,  usually  of  a  black  color,  and 
having  no  taste  or  smell.  All  the  varieties  of  carbon 
burn  more  or  less  freely  in  the  air,  and,  while  burning, 
are  converted  into  a  gas  called  carbonic  acid  gas:  this 
will  by-and-by  be  described. 

One  very  abundant  form  of  carbon  is  common 
charcoal;  another  is  lampblack;  others  are  coke  and 
blacklead:  the  most  beautiful  form  is  the  diamond. 
This,  strange  to  say,  though  it  looks  so  pure,  clear  and 
beautiful,  and  bears  so  high  a  price,  does  not  differ  at 
all  in  its  composition  from  common  charcoal!  A 
diamond  can  easily  be  burned  by  a  high  heat,  and  the 
product  of  the  burning  will  be  carbonic  acid  gas,  just 
as  when  charcoal  is  burned.  Charcoal  seems  to  be 
soft;  but  if  the  fine  powder  in  small  quantity  be  rub- 
bed between  plates  of  glass,  it  is  found  that  the  little 
particles  are  very  hard,  and  able  to  scratch  the  glass 
almost  as  easily  as  the  diamond  itself. 

Charcoal  has  strong  disinfecting  properties  :  liquids 
that  are  quite  offensive  in  smell,  when  filtered  through 
it,  become  pure  and  sweet.  The  color  is  also  extracted 
from  many  liquids  by  it.     Some  of  these  effects  are 


HYDROGEN. 


owing  to  its  power  of  absorbing  gaseous  and  other 
substances,  itself  being  full  of  pores. 

Both  the  flame  that  we  see  in  wood,  and  the  bright 
glow  of  coal  fires,  are  owing  to  the  burning  of  carbon; 
the  flames  of  candles,  of  oil  lamps,  of  ordinary  coal 
gas,  are  all  colored  by  the  combustion  of  this  substance. 
It  will  soon  be  seen  that  it  constitutes  a  very  large 
proportion  in  the  organic  part  of  all  vegetables  and 
trees. 

Hydrogen,  as  I  have  said,  is  a  gas,  or  kind  of  air. 
It  is  transparent,  tasteless,  colorless  and  inodorous. 
As  we  can  not  smell,  taste  or  see  it,  we  can  only  judge 
of  its  properties  by  its  action  with  other  bodies.  For 
this  purpose  it  is  obtained  by  putting  pieces  of  zinc 
or  iron  tilings  into  water,  and  then  adding  sulphuric 
acid,  that  is,  the  common  oil  of  vitriol.  About  a  third 
as  much  acid  as  water  should  be  used.  The  mixture 
will  soon  grow  warm,  and  hydrogen  gas  will  at  once 
commence  rising  to  the  surface  in  little  bubbles. 

a.  If  a  glass  be  laid  upon  the  top  of  the  tumbler 
containing  the  mixture,  so  as  to  prevent  the  too  rapid 
escape  of  the  gas,  the  tumbler  will  in  a  few  moments 
become  so  filled  that  the  gas  will  burn  when  a  flame 
is  brought  into  contact  with  it. 

h.  By  far  the  most  Fig  L 

satisfactory  method  is 
to  conduct  the  opera- 
tion as  represented  in 
fig.  1.  In  the  bottle 
are  placed  the  sul- 
phuric acid,  zinc,  and 
water.  The  mouth  of 
the  bottle  is  stopped 

tightly  by  a  cork,  through  which  passes  one  end  of  the 
tube  a  (this  may  be  of  glass  or  tin);  the  other  end 
passes  under  water  in  the  cistern  b,  its  course  being 


8  METHOD    OF    COLLECTING    GAS. 

marked  by  the  dotted  lines  c  (this  may  be  a  common 
pail,  or  shallow  water  tub).  A  tumbler  or  other  con- 
venient vessel  is  now  filled  with  water,  and  inverted 
under  the  surface,  so  that  it  may  contain  no  air,  being 
filled  entirely  with  water  :  it  is  then  brought  carefully 
over  the  orifice  of  the  tube,  and  the  ascending  bubbles 
of  gas  displace  the  water  until  it  is  entirely  driven  out, 
the  gas  remaining  confined.  If  a  little  shelf,  hollowed 
somewhat  underneath,  and  with  a  hole  through  it  at 
the  highest  point  of  the  hollow,  be  placed  in  the  cis- 
tern, three  or  four  vessels  in  succession  may  be  filled 
over  this  hole  and  set  aside  for  use,  keeping  the  mouths 
always  under  water.  A  common  tub  of  a  shallow 
form  will  answer  the  purpose  of  a  cistern. 

I  have  been  thus  particular  in  describing  this  little 
apparatus  of  the  cistern,  because  all  of  the  other  gases 
concerning  which  we  are  to  study  may  be  received  in 
the  same  way.  It  is  perfectly  effective,  yet  at  the 
same  time  simple  and  cheap. 

The  hydrogen  being  thus  collected,  we  are  next  to 
ascertain  what  are  its  properties. 

1.  It  is  inflammable  :  if  a  lighted  taper  be  plunged 
into  a  jar  of  it,  the  gas  will  instantly  take  fire,  and 
burn  with  a  pale  flame.  This  may  also  be  shown  by 
removing  the  cork  from  the  bottle  a 
in  fig.  1,  and  substituting  another  cork 
with  a  short  tube  coming  to  a  point 
as  fig.  2.  A  match  will  kindle  the 
jet  of  gas  issuing  from  the  orifice  a, 
and  it  will  continue  to  burn  so  long 
as  the  generation  of  gas  within  the 
bottle  is  active. 

2.  Although  inflammable  itself,  it 
is  not  a  supporter  of  combustion.  The 
taper  which  kindles  a  jar  of  it,  is  it- 
self extinguished. 
3.  It  is  much  lighter  than  common  air,  being  the 


OXYGEN.  9 

lightest  of  known  bodies.  This  can  be  shown  by 
turning  the  mouth  of  a  jar  filled  with  it  suddenly  up- 
ward, and  at  the  same  moment  applying  a  taper. 
There  will  be  a  slight  explosion,  and  a  body  of  flame 
rising  from  the  jar.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  jar  be 
gently  lifted  and  the  flame  applied  beneath,  the  burning 
will  be  inside  of  the  jar,  and  quite  gradual.  This 
property  may  also  be  shown  by  filling  a  bladder  with 
the  gas,  and  allowing  it  to  rise.  It  is  often  used  for 
filling  balloons,  its  lightness  giving  them  very  great 
buoyancy. 

4.  Mixed  with  common  air,  this  gas  is  dangerously 
explosive.  The  first  portions  which  pass  over  from 
the  bottle  are  therefore  to  be  rejected;  and  a  match 
ought  never  to  be  applied  to  a  jar  or  bottle  containing 
it,  or  in  which  it  is  being  made,  without  having  first 
tested  the  purity  of  a  small  quantity  collected  in  a  little 
tube.  If  this  burns  quietly  when  a  taper  is  placed 
beneath  its  mouth,  the  gas  is  sufficiently  pure  to  use 
with  safety. 

5.  This  gas  can  be  breathed  without  very  injurious 
effects,  but  it  will  not  sustain  life.  In  an  atmosphere 
of  pure  hydrogen,  every  animal  would  soon  die. 

The  next  of  these  three  gases  is  one  of  exceeding 
importance  :  its  name  is  Oxygen.  It  is  colorless, 
tasteless  and  inodorous,  like  hydrogen,  that  is,  when 
pure:  as  ordinarily  made,  it  has  some  impurities. 
The  easiest  way  of  preparing  it  is  to  mingle  some 
chlorate  of  potash  with  a  small  portion  of  the  black 
oxide  of  manganese.  Both  of  these  substances  can  be 
procured  at  the  shops  in  our  cities  and  large  towns. 
Half  a  teacupful  of  the  mixture  will  produce  quite 
enough  gas  for  ordinary  experimental  purposes.  The 
chlorate  of  potash  should  be  powdered  and  dried,  be- 
fore mixing  with  the  manganese.  When  all  is  ready, 
the  mixture  is  to  be  put  into  a  flask  with  a  thin  bot- 


10  OXYGEN. 

torn,  like  those  often  used  for  holding  sweet  oil,  and 
called  Florence  flasks.  These  will  bear  the  heat  of  a 
lamp  gradually  applied,  without  breaking.  Flasks  of 
this  kind,  made  expressly  for  such  purposes,  are  now 
to  be  obtained  in  many  places.  When  the  mixture  is 
introduced,  a  cork  with  a  bent  tube  should  be  fitted  in, 
and  the  gas  collected  over  water  in  a  cistern  as  before. 
The  heat  requires  to  be  continued  for  some  time,  before 
the  oxygen  will  begin  to  come  off  with  much  rapidity. 
Having  collected  a  sufficient  quantity,  the  qualities 
mentioned  above  will  first  become  obvious.  It  will 
then  be  seen, 

2.  That  on  applying  a  lighted  taper,  the  gas  does 
not  inflame  as  did  the  hydrogen,  nor  is  the  taper 
extinguished;  on  the  contrary,  it  burns  with  greatly 
increased  and  extreme  brilliancy:  it  may  be  blown  out 
and  relighted  by  immersion  in  this  gas,  so  long  as  the 
least  particle  of  coal  remains  upon  it.  So  intense  is 
its  action  as  a  supporter  of  combustion,  that  many 
substances  ordinarily  incombustible  take  fire  in  it,  and 
burn  with  great  splendor.  A  spiral  roll  of  small  iron 
wire  being  tipped  with  sulphur,  the  latter  lighted,  and 
then  the  whole  plunged  into  this  gas,  the  wire  is 
ignited,  and  burns  with  the  utmost  brilliancy.  This, 
then,  is  a  most  powerful  supporter  of  combustion. 

3.  It  is  no  less  important  to  the  support  of  life, 
whether  animal  or  vegetable.  Both  plants  and  ani- 
mals speedily  die  when  introduced  into  any  atmosphere 
which  does  not  contain  it.  In  five  gallons  of  common 
air,  there  is  about  one  gallon  of  oxygen  :  when  this  is 
greatly  diminished,  animals  die. 

If  animals  are  brought  into  an  atmosphere  of  pure 
oxygen,  the  effect  is  found  to  be  too  powerful;  the 
vital  functions  are  so  stimulated  as  in  a  very  short  time 
to  wear  themselves  out  by  a  kind  of  fever,  all  of  their 
powers  being  made  to  act  with  too  much  energy.  A 
mouse  or  other  small  animal,  placed  in  a  jar  of  oxygen, 


NITROGEN.  11 

will  breathe  very  quick,  become  highly  excited,  and 
spring  about  with  the  greatest  activity.  Its  powers, 
however,  are  greatly  over-stimulated  :  exhaustion  and 
death  consequently  soon  ensue. 

4.  It  is  much  heavier  than  hydrogen,  and  somewhat 
lighter  than  common  air. 

5.  This  substance  is  not  only  the  grand  supporter  of 
combustion  and  of  life,  but  is  also  the  most  powerful 
agent  of  destruction;  for  it  has  a  property  called  by 
chemists  oxidizing,  that  is,  of  uniting  with  nearly  all 
other  bodies  and  forming  new  combinations,  leading 
either  to  a  changed  state  or  to  decay.  Thus  it  is  not 
only  the  promoter  of  life,  but  of  death  and  decomposi- 
tion. 

It  might  be  expected  that  a  body  of  such  immense 
importance  should  be  abundant,  and  accordingly  we 
find  that  oxygen  gas  is  in  larger  quantity  than  any  other 
element  that  is  known.  It  forms,  as  has  been  said, 
a  fifth  of  the  atmosphere ;  in  nine  lbs.  of  water,  there 
are  eight  of  this  gas;  it  exists  largely  in  all  plants, 
and,  in  combination  with  various  inorganic  bodies,  it 
constitutes  a  large  proportion  of  the  solid  crust  of  our 
earth.  We  meet  it  in  all  places,  and  see  its  effects  on 
almost  every  known  body.  As  the  reader  proceeds, 
he  will  find  numerous  references  to  its  action,  and  will 
become  better  acquainted  with  its  properties.  In  the 
very  next  paragraph  below  is  an  instance  of  its  oxi- 
dizing phosphorus. 

The  last  of  these  four  most  important  organic  sub- 
stances, is  Nitrogen.  This  gas  is  easily  prepared  in 
sufficient  purity  for  purposes  of  experiment,  by  a  very 
simple  process.  Common  air,  or  our  atmosphere,  has 
been  stated  to  contain  one-fifth  of  oxygen;  the  re- 
maining four-fifths  are  nitrogen.  In  order  to  separate 
this  nitrogen,  we  invert  an  empty  glass  jar,  and  place 
the  open  mouth  in  water,  thus  confining  within  the 


12  NITROGEN. 

jar  a  portion  of  air.  Into  this  air  is  to  be  brought  a 
piece  of  ignited  phosphorus,  contained  in  a  little  cup 
so  as  to  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  Phosphorus, 
as  is  well  known,  is  very  inflammable.  While  burn- 
ing, it  unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  forms 
an  important  white  acid  compound  called  phosphoric 
acid:  to  this  we  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  again. 
When  the  burning  phosphorus  is  brought  under  the 
jar,  the  above  described  process  at  once  commences, 
and  continues  till  all  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air  within 
the  jar  has  combined  with  phosphorus.  The  nitrogen 
is  now  left  nearly  pure.  A  portion  of  the  confined  air 
expanded  by  heat,  of  course  escapes  at  first,  and  the 
jar  is  filled  with  white  fumes  of  phosphoric  acid. 
These  are  gradually  absorbed  by  the  water,  until  at 
last  the  interior  of  the  jar  is  quite  clear. 

1.  It  is  then  to  be  perceived  that  this  gas,  like  the 
two  preceding  ones,  is  colorless,  inodorous,  and  taste- 
less. It  has  so  few  marked  qualities  that  it  is  much 
more  easily  distinguished  from  the  others  by  saying 
what  it  is  not,  than  what  it  is.  Among  its  negatives, 
then,  we  find, 

2.  That  it  does  not  support  combustion  :  a  lighted 
taper,  plunged  into  it,  is  extinguished  instantly 

3.  It  does  not  burn  itself,  but  remains  unaltered 
after  contact  with  flame. 

4.  It  is  a  little  lighter  than  atmospheric  air.  It  will 
for  this  reason  remain  some  time  in  a  jar  held  with 
the  mouth  downward,  but  at  once  escapes  if  the  jar  be 
inverted.  Both  of  these  facts  may  be  shown  by  a 
lighted  taper. 

5.  It  will  not  support  vegetation  alone,  and  animals 
soon  die  when  placed  in  it.  They  do  not  seem  to  suffer 
from  any  active  poisonous  influence,  but  from  a  species 
of  suffocation  as  in  water. 

This  gas  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose  which 
it  serves  in  the  atmosphere,  of  tempering  the  too  great 


IMPORTANCE   OF    THE    FOUR    ORGANIC    ELEMENTS        13 

energy  of  the  oxygen.  Being  incapable  of  burning 
or  supporting  combustion,  it  prevents  the  general  con- 
flagration which  would  occur  in  pure  oxygen,  and  also 
reduces  its  strength  to  the  proper  proportion  for  sus- 
taining animal  and  vegetable  life,  without  bringing  in 
any  poisonous  or  deleterious  influences,  as  many  other 
gases  would  do.  We  see  then  that  its  negative  pro- 
perties just  fit  it  for  its  office. 

I  have  been  thus  particular  in  describing  simple 
processes  for  obtaining  these  gases,  because  every  mind 
is  better  satisfied  by  direct  and  practical  proofs.  The 
experiments  here  given  are  so  easy  that  the  most  in- 
experienced experimenter  could  soon  perform  them 
without  difficulty.  There  are  few  places  of  any  size 
where  the  necessary  materials  and  apparatus  can  not 
be  found,  and  obtained  with  little  expense.  Every 
teacher  should  illustrate  his  explanations  by  these 
proofs;  thereby  impressing  an  idea  of  each  substance 
upon  the  mind  more  indelibly  than  could  be  done  in 
any  other  way.  Many  farmers  could  make  them  for 
their  own  satisfaction  in  leisure  hours. 

The  reader  will  now  understand  why  it  is  that  I 
have  urged  the  necessity  of  becoming  acquainted  with 
these  organic  bodies;  for  he  has  seen  that  they  not 
only  compose  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the 
vegetable  world,  but  that  mixtures  of  two  or  three  of 
them  constitute  the  air  we  breathe,  the  water  we  drink, 
and,  in  one  shape  or  another,  a  large  part  of  the  earth 
upon  which  we  live.  Are  not  these  eminently  bodies 
with  which  all  of  every  profession  ought  to  be  well 
acquainted;  and  most  of  all  the  farmer,  who  depends 
on  them  under  various  forms  for  all  success,  who  can 
not  engage  in  the  most  simple  operation  without  being 
influenced  by  them  in  different  and  most  important 
ways?  The  man  who  knows  the  principal  properties 
and  the  peculiar  energies  of  the  materials  with  which 
2 


14  CHEMISTRY    AN    ADDITIONAL    SENSE. 

he  has  to  do,  provided  he  also  has  practical  skill,  is 
obviously  in  a  much  better  position  than  the  one  who 
knows  nothing  of  them,  and  scorns  the  very  idea  of 
learning  anything  from  books.  The  former  shapes  his 
course  from  certainties,  from  actual  reasoning  based 
on  his  own  knowledge;  the  latter  does  any  particular 
thing  only  because  he  has  seen  it  done  before,  or  per- 
haps because  some  other  person  recommends  it. 

Carbon  is  the  only  one  of  these  four  substances  that 
is  visible  or  tangible  to  our  unaided  senses,  but  we  see 
that  there  are  means  of  recognizing  the  others;  that 
we  are  able  to  perceive  their  properties,  and  even  to 
reason  upon  their  various  uses,  with  no  less  certainty 
than  if  we  were  able  to  grasp  them  in  our  hands  and 
hold  them  up  for  inspection.  Chemistry  may  thus  be 
considered  an  additional  sense. 


15 


CHAPTER  II. 

INORGANIC  PART  OF  PLANTS. 

The  ash,  or  inorganic  part  of  plants.  Names  of  substances  which 
constitute  this  part  :  Potash,  Soda,  Lime,  Magnesia,  Oxide  of 
Iron,  Oxide  of  Manganese,  Silica,  Chlorine,  Sulphuric  acid, 
Phosphoric  acid.     Description  of  their  several  properties. 

SECTION  I.    SUBSTANCES  WHICH  CONSTITUTE  THE  INORGANIC 
PART   OF    PLANTS. 

It  will  be  remembered,  that  although  by  far  the 
larger  portion  of  the  plant  disappears  when  fire  is 
applied,  there  is  always  something  remaining  called 
the  ash,  or,  as  has  been  before  explained,  the  inorganic 
part.  This  name  inorganic  was  given  to  denote  a 
striking  difference  between  these  two  great  classes  of 
bodies,  the  organic  and  the  inorganic  :  the  one  being 
products  of  life  and  living  organs;  the  other  only 
taken  by  the  organs  to  answer  certain  purposes,  not 
having  been  formed  by  them,  and  not  like  them  liable 
to  quick  destruction. 

This  ash  constitutes  so  small  a  part  of  all  living 
plants,  that  it  was  for  a  long  time  thought  to  be  a 
species  of  accidental  impurity;  but  after  a  time,  it 
was  found  that  certain  substances  were  almost  always 
present  in  the  ash  of  every  cultivated  plant.  The 
ash  of  the  same  plant,  grown  on  different  soils,  was 
found  to  have  a  composition  of  nearly  the  same  nature; 
thus  showing  that  it  did  not  take  in  indiscriminately 
every  thing  that  might  come  in  contact  with  its  roots, 
but  had  a  certain  power  of  selection. 


16  POTASH. 

The  organic  part  of  plants,  although  so  much  the 
larger,  consists  at  most  of  four  substances;  but  in  the 
ash,  we  occasionally  find  as  many  as  ten.  These  are 
named  as  follows  :  Potash,  Soda,  Lime,  Magnesia, 
Oxide  of  Iron,  Oxide  of  Manganese,  Silica,  Chlorine, 
Sulphuric  Acid  (oil  of  vitriol),  and  Phosphoric  Acid. 

Here  is  a  list  of  what  may  seem  very  hard  names, 
but  neither  the  farmer  nor  the  scholar  must  be  fright- 
ened at  them  :  when  he  has  once  seen  the  substances 
to  which  they  belong,  and  has  learned  by  experience 
their  more  important  properties,  he  will  perceive  that 
he  is  really  able  to  comprehend  something  about  them, 
and  will  at  once  recover  from  the  feeling  of  dread  and 
aversion  which  they  at  first  excited.  There  may  be 
some  consolation,  too,  in  the  knowledge  that  the  above 
list  comprises  the  greater  portion  of  the  new  words 
which  will  be  employed  in  the  succeeding  chapters  of 
this  little  work.  We  will  then  now  commence  with 
good  courage,  and  notice  each  of  these  inorganic 
substances  separately. 

Potash  is  well  known  as  the  extract  by  water  from 
wood  ashes,  boiled  down  to  dryness,  a.  It  attracts 
moisture  from  the  air  when  strong,  and,  if  touched  to 
the  tongue,  causes  an  acrid  burning  sensation  called 
by  chemists  an  alkaline  taste:  it  is  often  strong  enough 
to  destroy  the  skin,  and  may  be  purified  to  such  a 
strength  as  to  corrode  almost  every  perishable  sub- 
stance, b.  When  purified  in  the  ordinary  way,  potash 
forms  pearlash,  which  is  simply  potash  deprived  of  the 
foreign  bodies  with  which  it  was  contaminated,  and 
carbonated  or  combined  with  carbonic  acid  :  in  this 
state  it  is  nearly  white,  c.  Potash  is  quite  abundant 
in  plants  :  more  so  in  some  classes  than  others.  It  is 
injurious  to  some  kinds  of  weeds,  or  at  least  is  used 
to  extirpate  them  by  bringing  in  better  kinds. 


SODA,    LIME    AND    MAGNESIA.  17 

Soda.  We  do  not  often  see  this  substance  by  itself, 
but  almost  always  in  combination  with  other  bodies. 

a.  Some  of  the  more  common  of  these  are  carbonate  of 
soda,  that  is,  the  common  washing  soda  of  the  shops; 
and  chloride  of  sodium,  that  is,  common  salt.  Both 
of  these  compounds  contain  a  large  proportion  of  soda. 

b.  It  is  white,  and  when  pure  has  the  same  attraction 
for  water,  the  same  caustic  and  burning  taste,  as  pot- 
ash; in  fact  the  two  are  much  alike  in  many  of  their 
properties,  and  also  in  the  purposes  which  they  seem 
to  serve  in  plants. 

Lime  is  a  very  common  substance,  and  is  well 
known  in  all  its  usual  forms,  a.  As  quick  or  caustic 
lime,  it  is  of  a  white  color,  having  a  strong  burning 
taste,  and  powerful  caustic  properties.  It  absorbs  large 
quantities  of  water,  and  at  the  same  time  becomes  hot, 
falling  into  a  fine  powder.  Fresh  burned  lime,  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  does  not  remain  long  in  this  caustic 
state,  but  drinks  in  moisture  and  crumbles  gradually 
away.  b.  In  nature  it  is  always  found  combined  with 
some  other  body,  as,  for  instance,  the  common  lime- 
stone (carbonate  of  lime),  or  the  sulphate  of  lime 
(gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris),  which  are  both  most 
abundant  rocks.  Common  limestone  or  marble,  when 
burned,  becomes  quickl  ime.  The  phenomena  of  slaking 
quicklime  are  easily  shown  and  explained.  Every  ton 
of  quicklime,  during  slaking,  absorbs  one-fourth  of  a 
ton  of  water,  which  becomes  a  part  of  the  stone  itself. 

Magnesia  is  not  so  well  known  as  lime,  although  it 
is  abundant  on  the  earth's  surface  and  in  many  rocks. 

a.  The  most  common  and  easily  obtained  form  is  the 
calcined  magnesia  of  the  shops.  This  is  a  light, 
white,  tasteless  substance,  familiar  to  all  who  use  much 
medicine.  Epsom  salts,  so  much  in  vogue  as  a  me- 
dical prescription,  is  another  compound  of  magnesia. 

b.  When  burned,  magnesia  has  something  of  the  caustic 

2* 


18 


re  on. 


properties  of  lime,  but  not  by  any  means  to  the  same 
extent.  It  is  a  constituent  of  many  rocks,  and  par- 
ticularly of  one  class  of  limestones,  hence  called  mag- 
nesian  limestones,  or  sometimes  dolomites.  Although 
magnesia  is  necessary  to  plants,  it  is  found  that  too 
great  a  quantity  of  lime  made  from  these  dolomites  is 
decidedly  injurious  to  crops. 

Iron,  in  its  metallic  state,  presents  an  appearance 
that  must  be  familiar  to  all.  This  metallic  state, 
however,  that  of  a  hard  bluish  gray  substance,  is  not 
found  in  nature.  The  metal,  as  extracted  from  the 
ore  beds  and  mines,  is  always  in  combination  or  union 
with  some  other  body.  a.  Most  commonly  it  is  united 
with  oxygen,  forming  what  are  called  oxides.  Metallic 
iron  has  a  strong  tendency  to  form  these  oxides.  Every 
one  knows  that  if  bright  iron  be  exposed  to  the  air 
for  any  length  of  time  without  protection,  it  speedily 
becomes  covered  with  rust,  particularly  if  the  place 
where  it  lies  be  damp.  The  farmer  finds  that  his  bright 
plough,  exposed  to  a  shower  or  to  a  night's  dew,  be- 
comes streaked  with  rust.  This  rust  is  an  oxide  of 
iron;  that  is,  a  portion  of  the  metal  has  united  with 
a  portion  of  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  has  thus  formed 
this  new  compound. 

0.  There  is  more  than  one  oxide  of  iron,  but  that 
which  is  usually  found  in  plants,  and  which  is  common- 
ly known  under  the  name  of  iron  rust,  is  called  by 
chemists  the  peroxide  of  iron;  this  is  to  distinguish  it 
from  another  oxide,  to  which  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  allude  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  From  such  a  dis- 
tinction being  made,  the  inference  will  naturally  and 
correctly  be  drawn,  that  the  oxygen  and  the  iron  unite 
in  definite  proportions:  a  certain  quantity  of  iron  unites 
with  a  certain  quantity  of  oxygen,  to  form  the  per- 
oxide; if  the  proportions  are  altered,  we  have  some 
other  oxide.     Where,  however,  there  is  an  abundance 


OXIDE    OF    MANGANESE,    AND    SILICA.  19 

of  oxygen,  it  is  always  the  peroxide  that  is  formed  : 
hence  we  invariably  find  this  oxide  on  exposed  iron 
surfaces,  and  in  plants. 

The  substances  hitherto  described  have  all  been 
those  that  are  found  quite  abundantly;  but  that  which 
is  now  to  be  mentioned,  the  Oxide  of  Manganese,  is 
more  rare.  Many  species  of  our  cultivated  plants  are 
found  to  be  without  it  in  their  ash  far  more  often  than 
with  it;  and  when  it  is  present  in  the  soil,  we  can 
not,  from  any  experiments  hitherto  made,  see  that 
their  growth  is  more  luxuriant.  In  some  trees  it  is  said 
to  exist  abundantly;  but  for  the  ash  of  our  cultivated 
crops  generally,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  it  can 
scarcely  be  considered  an  indispensable  constituent. 
Manganese  is  a  metal  somewhat  resembling  iron,  but 
much  less  abundant.  It  also  is  always  found  in  some 
compound  form,  never  as  a  pure  metal.  It  forms 
oxides  wTith  oxygen;  and  one  of  these,  the  black 
oxide,  is  of  much  value  in  certain  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses. For  these  purposes,  it  is  mined  whenever  it  is 
found  in  large  quantity.  This  black  oxide  may  easily 
be  obtained  and  shown  to  a  class.  As  it  is  now  large- 
ly used  in  some  manufactures,  it  is  a  cheap  article. 

Silica  is  a  substance  that  exists  abundantly  in  almost 
all  plants,  often  forming  more  than  half  of  the  whole 
ash.  a.  We  see  a  nearly  pure  form  of  it  in  the  com- 
mon quartz  crystals,  or  agate,  or  cornelian,  or  flint : 
these  all  consist  almost  entirely  of  silica.  Specimens 
of  silica,  in  some  form,  may  be  found  in  almost  every 
neighborhood,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  common  minerals. 
When  perfectly  pure,  it  is  a  very  hard,  white  sub- 
stance, tasteless,  and  quite  difficult  to  melt.  The  fine 
grains  in  ordinary  sandstones  are  particles  of  silica. 
b.  It  is  not  dissolved  in  water,  and  even  strong  acids 
produce  little  effect :  how  singular  then  that  it  should 
be  found  so  abundantly  in  the  interior  of  plants! 


20  CHLORINE. 

Chlorine  is  a  kind  of  gas.  It  is  easily  prepared  by 
mixing  a  little  muriatic  acid  with  some  of  the  com- 
mercial black  oxide  of  manganese;  a  gentle  heat  being 
then  applied,  chlorine  is  given  off,  and  is  conducted 
into  receivers  in  the  manner  before  described  under 
oxygen  and  hydrogen,  a.  Water,  when  cold,  absorbs  it 
largely,  and  therefore  the  water  in  the  receptacle  where 
the  gas  is  collected  should  be  hot.  b.  It  is,  however, 
so  much  heavier  than  common  air,  that  it  may  be  col- 
lected in  sufficient  quantity  by  carrying  the  conducting 
tube  to  the  bottom  of  a  jar  or  bottle.  The  top  being 
partially  covered,  so  as  to  prevent  too  free  access  of 
air  and  consequent  agitation,  the  vessel  can  be  filled 
with  chlorine  as  readily  as  with  water,  c.  If  the  glass 
is  white,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  chlorine  now 
filling  it  is  of  a  decided  green  color. 

d.  The  sense  of  smell  should  be  tested  cautiously  in 
this  case,  as  the  gas  has  a  most  suffocating  and  dis- 
tressing effect  when  inhaled  even  in  small  quantity. 
The  consequences  of  a  single  breath  of  it  taken  by 
mistake,  are  often  felt  for  days  in  its  irritating  effect 
upon  the  lungs  and  throat.  The  method  of  collection 
last  mentioned  will  show  that  it  is  heavier  than 
common  air,  but  this  may  be  farther  illustrated  by 
pouring  it  from  one  glass  into  another. 

e.  Phosphorus  takes  fire  spontaneously  in  this  gas, 
and  so  do  several  of  the  metals  when  powdered,  anti- 
mony for  instance.  A  taper  plunged  into  it  burns  at 
first  with  an  enlarged  red  smoky  flame,  but  soon  goes 
out. 

f.  Chlorine  has  a  peculiar  power  of  bleaching,  and 
is  used  very  largely  in  the  arts  for  such  purposes.  Al- 
most any  of  the  ordinary  calicoes  may  be  bleached  by 
placing  them  in  water  saturated  with  it.  The  color 
of  red  cabbage  liquor  is  very  easily  destroyed  by  a 
very  small  quantity. 

g.  It  unites  with  soda,  one  of  the  bodies  already 


SULPHURIC    ACID.  21 

mentioned,  and  forms  common  salt,  a  substance  having 
harmless  properties  in  itself,  and  differing  most  widely 
from  either  of  those  out  of  which  it  is  formed. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  the  common  oil  of  vitriol,  a.  It 
has  commonly  been  called  an  oil,  because  of  its  thick 
oily  appearance,  but  has  few  other  properties  of  oils. 
It  is,  like  them,  rather  soft  and  agreeable  in  its  first 
feeling  upon  the  skin,  but  this  sensation  is  instantly 
succeeded  by  an  intense  burning  pain;  for  the  acid  is 
so  powerful  in  its  corrosive  effects,  as  to  destroy  both 
skin  and  flesh  wherever  it  touches.  Cloth  is  at  once 
ruined  by  it,  eaten  out  in  holes.  A  very  small  quan- 
tity taken  into  the  mouth  and  swallowed  is  fatal,  as 
all  of  the  internal  passages  are  destroyed  or  seriously 
injured  by  its  contact.  There  have  been  many  cases 
of  death  from  accidentally  swallowing  even  so  small 
a  portion  as  part  of  a  spoonful. 

b.  The  name  acid  would  naturally  cause  us  to  sup- 
pose that  this  liquid  would  be  sour;  and  a  taste  of  it 
even  when  largely  diluted  with  water,  shows  it  to  be 
so  in  the  extreme.  When  thus  diluted,  so  that  the  skin 
may  not  be  at  all  affected,  it  is  not  poisonous,  and  has 
a  rather  agreeable  taste. 

b.  If  paper  saturated  with  blue  litmus,  a  substance  to 
be  found  in  many  apothecaries'  shops,  be  dipped  into 
this  or  other  acids,  it  will  become  red  :  if  the  paper 
thus  turned  red  be  dipped  into  a  solution  of  potash  or 
soda  or  ammonia,  it  will  become  blue  again.  This 
furnishes  a  test  by  means  of  which  we  can  tell  whether 
fluids  are  acid  or  alkaline. 

c.  Sulphuric  acid  is  occasionally  found  in  springs, 
uncombined  with  any  thing.  There  are  some  in 
western  New  York,  near  Lockport,  where  the  water  as 
it  comes  from  the  spring  is  sour  as  vinegar,  owing  to 
the  presence  of  free  sulphuric  acid. 

d.  This  is  a  much  heavier  liquid  than  water.     A 


22  SULPHURIC   AND   PHOSPHORIC    ACIDS. 

stream  of  it  poured  gently  into  a  cup  of  water  from  a 
small  distance  above  the  surface,  can  be  seen  to  sink 
directly  to  the  bottom.  When  agitated  so  as  to  mingle 
it  with  the  water,  the  mixture  becomes  quite  hot,  be- 
cause a  chemical  union  takes  place  between  the  two 
liquids. 

e.  This  acid,  except  in  such  cases  as  the  above,  is 
always  found  in  a  state  of  combination  with  some  other 
substance,  and  then  can  not  be  recognized  by  any  of 
the  properties  which  I  have  mentioned.  In  some  of 
these  forms  of  combination,  it  is  very  abundant.  One 
of  them,  and  an  important  one  to  the  farmer,  is  gyp- 
sum, or  plaster  of  Paris.  This,  as  is  well  known,  is  a 
solid,  and  has  no  acid  taste  :  it,  however,  consists  of 
sulphuric  acid  united  with  lime,  forming  what  is  termed 
by  chemists  sulphate  of  lime.  In  every  100  lbs.  of 
plaster  of  Paris  are  about  33  lbs.  of  sulphuric  acid, 
46  lbs.  of  lime,  and  21  lbs.  of  water. 

Epsom  salts  consist  of  sulphuric  acid  and  magnesia; 
alum,  of  sulphuric  acid,  alumina  and  potash.  From 
all  of  these  the  acid  can  be  separated  by  chemical 
means.  It  is  used  largely  for  various  manufacturing 
purposes,  and  is  made  by  burning  sulphur  (brimstone), 
with  certain  precautions,  in  large  leaden  chambers. 
This  acid  will  be  subsequently  seen  to  be  a  substance 
of  great  importance  for  various  purposes  in  agriculture. 

Not  less  important  is  the  next  body  on  our  list, 
phosphoric  acid.  It  is  also  very  sour,  and  is  usually 
seen  as  a  white  powder.  If  a  stick  of  phosphorus  is 
burned,  white  fumes  are  seen  to  rise  in  large  quantity. 
The  phosphorus  unites  while  burning  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air,  and  forms  phosphoric  acid.  If  these  white 
fumes  are  passed  through  water,  it  will  become  sour, 
as  it  dissolves  the  acid  :  they  may  also  be  condensed 
on  a  cold  glass  plate. 

a.  This  body  can  be  shown  in  a  yet  simpler  manner 


DIFFERENCES    IN    THE    ASH    OF    PLANTS.  23 

by  burning  a  common  locofoco  match  :  the  white 
smoke  which  goes  off*  at  first  before  the  sulphur  ig- 
nites, is  phosphoric  acid.  Phosphorus  is  used  in  the 
making  of  these  matches,  because  it  is  a  substance  that 
inflames  easily  by  a  little  friction.  All  who  have  rub- 
bed them  on  a  wall  or  board  in  the  dark,  have  observed 
that  they  leave  a  quite  bright,  luminous  trace,  distinctly 
visible.  If  the  match  fails  to  ignite,  the  end  of  it  will 
also  appear  bright,  and  the  peculiar  smell  of  phos- 
phorus may  be  perceived. 

Phosphoric  acid  does  not  seem  to  exist  in  so  large 
quantity  as  sulphuric  acid,  as  it  does  not  constitute  a 
principal  portion  of  any  of  our  rocks.  It  forms  a  very 
important  part  of  the  bones  of  animals. 

SECTION    II.    DIFFERENCES    IN    THE    ASH    OF    CULTIVATED 
PLANTS. 

We  have  now  noticed  each  of  the  substances  that 
were  named  as  occurring  in  the  inorganic  part  of 
plants,  and  have  given  such  of  their  more  remarkable 
properties  and  more  common  forms  of  appearance  as 
seemed  necessary  to  their  recognition  by  the  practical 
man. 

It  has  been  already  stated,  that  with  one  or  two 
occasional  exceptions,  they  are  all  found  in  the  ash  of 
cultivated  plants.  Sometimes  one  and  sometimes  an- 
other is  absent,  but  generally  we  find  small  quantities 
of  nearly  all.  It  does  not  follow  from  this,  however, 
that  every  plant  contains  the  same  quantity  of  ash. 
The  trunk  of  a  tree,  for  instance,  if  deprived  of  its 
bark,  does  not  yield  more  than  from  one  to  two  pounds 
of  ash  in  one  hundred  of  wood,  while  the  stalk  of  grass 
or  straw  of  grain  frequently  contains  from  6  to  14  lbs. 
in  100.  There  are  some  plants  which  scarcely  con- 
tain any  ash  whatever,  and  others  in  which  it  forms  a 
large  proportion.     This  difference  exists  not  only  be- 


24  DIFFERENCES    IN    THE    ASH    OF    PLANTS. 

tween  various  plants,  but  between  the  parts  of  the 
same  plant. 

If  we  examine  the  straw  of  wheat,  we  find  usually 
6  or  7  per  cent  of  ash;  the  leaf  contains  7  or  8  per  cent, 
and  the  grain  not  more  than  1  or  2  per  cent.  So  in 
turnips  or  beets,  the  dried  roots  have  no  more  than 
from  1  to  2  per  cent  of  ash,  while  the  dried  leaves 
often  leave  from  20  to  30.  These  facts  are  to  be 
remembered. 

When  we  pursue  our  researches  a  step  further,  and 
separate  the  substances  which  make  up  the  ash  of  dif- 
ferent plants,  we  find  that  here  also  is  a  great  variation. 
The  ash  of  potatoes  is  more  than  half  potash,  while  the 
ash  in  the  grain  of  wheat  contains  much  less  potash, 
but  is  about  half  phosphoric  acid.  The  ash  of  clover 
and  lucerne  often  contains  twice  as  much  lime  as  that 
of  herdsgrass  or  timothy  hay. 

We  may  thus  divide  plants  into  classes  according 
to  the  composition  of  their  ash.  In  the  ash  from  the 
seed  of  wheat  and  all  of  our  cultivated  grains,  phos- 
phoric acid  is  the  leading  ingredient;  in  that  from 
turnips,  beets  and  other  roots,  it  is  much  less,  while  the 
alkalies  potash  and  soda  increase;  in  the  tubers  of  the 
potato  they  constitute  more  than  half;  in  the  grasses, 
lime  and  silica  are  more  abundant,  and  in  some,  as 
the  clovers,  lime  becomes  a  leading  substance;  in  the 
stems  of  most  trees  lime  abounds  yet  more,  and  in  many 
cases  exceeds  in  quantity  any  thing  else.  These  facts 
have  a  marked  bearing  on  many  practical  points  which 
we  have  yet  to  consider. 

It  was  stated  that  the  quantity  of  ash  varied  in 
different  parts  of  the  same  plant,  as,  for  example,  in 
the  straw  and  the  grain  of  wheat.  This  variation  in 
quantity  is  not  more  marked  than  that  in  the  com- 
position of  these  two  ashes.  In  the  ash  of  the  straw 
we  find  that  there  is  a  great  proportion  of  silica,  and 
very  little  phosphoric  acid;  while  in  that  of  the  grain, 


RECAPITULATION    OF    FACTS.  25 

more  than  half  is  phosphoric  acid,  and  there  is  scarcely 
any  silica.  When  we  come  to  consider  the  purposes 
for  which  these  parts  are  intended,  the  cause  of  such 
variations  will  be  plainly  perceived.  We  even  find  in 
many  plants  a  distinction  between  the  composition  of 
the  ash  at  the  bottom  of  the  stalk,  and  that  at  the  top. 
In  all  cases  the  ash  from  the  husk  which  covers  the 
seed,  as  in  oats,  barley  or  buckwheat,  differs  exceed- 
ingly in  its  constitution  from  that  of  the  seed  itself. 
We  shall  in  subsequent  chapters  see  what  is  the  cha- 
racter of  this  difference,  and  understand  at  least  a  part 
of  the  reasons  for  it. 

We  have  now  called  attention  to  several  valuable 
facts  respecting  the  inorganic  part  or  ash  of  plants  : 

1.  All  of  the  inorganic  substances  described  are 
generally  present  in  our  cultivated  crops,  but  not  in- 
variably :  sometimes  one  or  two  are  absent. 

2.  The  quantity  of  ash  yielded  by  different  plants 
varies. 

3.  The  composition  of  this  ash  also  varies,  and  in 
as  great  a  degree  as  the  quantity. 

4.  This  applies  not  only  to  different  kinds  of  plants, 
but  to  different  parts  of  the  same  plant. 

Upon  these  four  points  depend  many  of  the  most 
important  discoveries  in  agriculture,  and  we  shall  find 
them  connected  very  intimately  with  all  of  the  leading 
subjects  which  are  yet  to  engage  our  attention.  Let 
the  reader,  then,  before  proceeding  farther,  understand 
them  thoroughly  and  impress  them  upon  his  memory. 


26 


CHAPTER  III. 

SOURCES  OF  THE  FOOD  OF  PLANTS. 

Organic  food;  derived  from  the  soil  in  forms  of  combination 
chiefly.  Carbonic  acid  gas:  proportion  present  in  the  atmo- 
sphere: absorbed  through  pores  in  the  leaves:  decomposed  in 
the  leaf,  and  oxygen  given  off  during  daylight.  Organic  acids 
in  soils.  Sources  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  ;  of  nitrogen. 
Ammonia.     Nitric  acid. 

SECTION    I.    ORGANIC    FOOD   OF    PLANTS. 

Having  named  and  described  the  various  substances 
from  which  the  ash  of  plants  is  made  up,  and  which 
may  therefore  be  considered  their  inorganic  food,  we 
must  now  see  what  are  the  sources  of  their  inorganic 
as  well  as  of  their  organic  food. 

An  organic  and  an  inorganic  part  being  absolutely 
essential  to  the  existence  of  every  perfect  plant,  it 
becomes  necessary  that  the  farmer  should  know  where 
the  different  bodies  come  from,  that  are  to  make  up 
these  parts.  This  knowledge  is  of  advantage,  as  en- 
abling him  to  increase  natural  sources  of  supply,  or  to 
devise  artificial  means  of  furnishing  what  is  deficient. 

It  is  quite-  clear  that  a  plant  which  is  to  grow 
rapidly,  must  have  a  constant  supply  of  the  two  classes 
of  food,  and,  moreover,  that  this  supply  must  be  pre- 
sented in  a  shape  immediately  available.  It  is  of  no 
use  to  the  crops  of  the  present  season,  to  say  to  them 
that  there  is  an  abundant  supply  of  manure  in  the 
barnyard  :  they  want  it  near  their  roots,  and  will  not 
flourish  without  it  there.  So  of  all  other  things  re- 
quired in  the  soil,  they  must  not  only  be  present,  but 


POOD   FROM    THE    SOIL    AND   FROM   THE   AIR.         27 

must  be  in  a  soluble  state,  capable  of  immediate 
employment  in  building  up  the  plant.  The  farmer, 
then,  who  knows  best  what  is  needed,  knows  how  to 
furnish  it  so  as  to  have  the  best  crops,  and  at  the  least 
expense. 

An  examination  of  the  leaves  and  of  the  roots  of 
a  living  plant,  shows  that  it  obtains  a  portion  of  its 
food  from  the  air,  and  a  portion  from  the  earth. 

a.  Inorganic  food,  consisting  as  it  does  of  solid 
bodies,  does  not  of  course  exist  in  the  air,  and  must 
therefore  all  be  taken  in  through  the  roots. 

b.  The  organic  food  comes  partly  from  the  soil,  and 
partly  from  the  air  through  the  leaves.  It  may  be 
asked,  How  we  know  that  plants  get  food  through 
their  leaves?  This  is  easily  proved.  If  we  place  the 
stem  and  leaves  of  a  growing  plant  in  a  portion  of 
confined  air,  the  composition  of  which  is  known,  and 
that  air  be  reexamined  by  means  of  chemical  tests  a 
day  or  two  afterward,  it  will  be  found  that  its  com- 
position has  changed:  a  portion  of  it  has  disappeared, 
having  been  absorbed  by  the  plant  through  its  leaves. 

c.  If  the  confined  air,  for  instance,  contained  car- 
bonic acid,  a  portion  has  gone,  and  its  place  is  supplied 
by  oxygen. 

d.  If  there  is  no  carbonic  acid  present  in  the  water 
or  air,  the  action  will  not  go  on.  The  importance  of 
these  facts  will  soon  be  perceived. 

We  have  seen  something  of  the  forms  in  which 
plants  may  receive  their  inorganic  food ;  that  it  is  not 
usually  as  simple  substances,  but  in  some  forms  of 
combination.  Thus  potash  does  not  enter  the  roots  as 
potash  alone,  but  as  sulphate  or  carbonate  or  silicate 
of  potash ;  that  is,  in  combination  with  sulphuric  acid, 
or  carbonic  acid,  or  silica.  So  it  is  with  organic  food; 
the  four  gases  which  we  have  examined  do  not  or- 
dinarily minister  in  their  simple  state  to  the  growth 
of  plants,  but,  as  do  the  inorganic  substances,  in  some 
form  of  combination. 


28  CARBONIC    ACID   GAS. 


SECTION    II.     CARBONIC    ACID,    ITS    SOURCES    AND    PRINCIPAL 
PROPERTIES. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  these  combinations  is 
known  to  chemists  as  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  gas  is 
very  abundant  in  nature,  and  combines  with  many 
solid  substances,  forming  what  are  called  carbonates. 

a.  Common  limestone  is  a  carbonate  of  lime;  and 
if  muriatic  acid  be  poured  upon  it,  a  violent  efferves- 
cence takes  place,  caused  by  the  escape  of  this  gas. 

b.  So  in  the  common  soda  powers,  the  soda  is  a 
carbonate  of  soda;  and  when  tartaric  acid  is  added,  a 
violent  effervescence  ensues,  as  all  have  often  seen. 
This  too  results  from  the  escape  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

c.  It  causes  the  froth  on  beer,  and  on  the  surface  of 
all  fermenting  liquids. 

It  is  easily  collected  in  glass  receivers  over  water, 
in  the  same  way  as  heretofore  described.  Pouring 
muriatic  acid  upon  common  limestone  powdered,  or 
upon  carbonate  of  soda,  is  a  convenient  and  cheap 
method  of  obtaining  this  gas.  If  it  be  done  in  a  tall 
glass  or  wide-mouthed  bottle,  the  gas  will  rise  and 
fill  the  bottle,  so  that  its  properties  may  be  examined. 

1.  The  first  thing  apparent  will  be,  that  a  lighted 
taper  plunged  into  the  bottle  is  instantly  extinguished; 
thus  showing  that  the  gas  neither  inflames  itself,  nor 
supports  combustion. 

2.  It  will  be  perceived  that  carbonic  acid  gas  is 
heavier  than  common  air.  It  does  not  rise  and  mingle 
with  the  air,  but  fills  the  vessel  like  water.  The  taper 
will  burn  freely  until  it  reaches  its  surface,  and  for  a 
moment  even  after  the  lower  part  of  the  flame  is  im- 
mersed. When  the  vessel  is  full,  the  gas,  in  place  of 
rising,  flows  over  the  edge  and  downward  as  water 
would  do.  It  may  be  poured  from  a  vessel  upon  a 
candle  or  taper  so  as  to  extinguish  it,  provided  that 


COMPOSITION   OF    CARBONIC    ACID.  29 

there  "be  no  strong  draft  to  sweep  it  away.  It  may  in 
this  manner  be  transferred  from  one  vessel  to  another. 

3.  A  third  important  property  of  this  gas  is,  that 
all  animals  compelled  to  breathe  it  instantly  fall,  and 
in  a  very  few  moments  die.  This  may  be  shown  by 
placing  a  mouse  or  other  small  animal  in  an  atmo- 
sphere of  it.  Owing  to  its  weight,  it  sometimes  ac- 
cumulates in  sheltered  hollows,  and  is  the  cause  of 
fatal  accidents.  In  brewers'  vats  when  fermentation 
takes  place,  and  in  some  wells,  it  is  apt  to  collect,  and 
persons  lowered  incautiously  to  clean  them  suddenly 
fall  insensible.  All  danger  may  be  avoided  by  simply 
lowering  a  lighted  candle  before  any  one  goes  down: 
if  the  candle  burns  freely  at  the  bottom,  there  is  no 
risk  in  descending. 

This  gas  consists  of  carbon  and  oxygen;  6  lbs.  of 
carbon  and  16  lbs.  of  oxygen  forming  22  lbs.  of  car- 
bonic acid.  Chemists  call  it  carbon  1  and  oxygen  2. 
It  is  easy  to  prove  this  fact  by  burning  charcoal,  which 
it  will  be  remembered  is  one  form  of  carbon,  in  a  jar 
of  pure  oxygen  gas.  When  the  charcoal  has  ceased 
to  burn,  the  air  remaining  in  the  jar  will  be  carbonic 
acid;  as  carbon  and  oxygen  were  the  only  two  sub- 
stances present,  the  carbonic  acid  must  plainly  have 
been  formed  by  their  union  in  certain  proportions. 

This  is  another  instance  of  those  strange  chemical 
changes  in  the  properties  of  bodies,  with  which  all 
who  study  this  subject  soon  become  familiar.  Carbon, 
a  hard  inflammable  solid,  unites  with  oxygen,  a  light 
gas,  supporting  combustion  and  animal  life  in  a  most 
remarkable  degree ;  to  form  another  kind  of  gas,  having 
a  much  greater  weight,  entirely  incombustible,  and, 
when  unmixed  with  air,  destructive  to  almost  every 
form  of  life. 

Carbonic  acid  exists  naturally  in  very  large  quantity. 
It  is  invariably  present  in  the  atmosphere.  For  a 
long  time  this  was  thought  to  be  accidental,  but  later 
3* 


30      CARBONIC   ACID  PRESENT    IN   THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

experiments  have  shown  that  it  is  always  there  in  very 
nearly  the  same  proportion.  This  proportion  is  quite 
small,  being  only  osso^1  of  the  whole  bulk,  or  about 
__i_^th  of  the  whole  weight.  It  seems  insignificant, 
too  much  so  to  be  noticed;  but  when  we  come  to  cal- 
culate from  the  known  weight  of  the  atmosphere  on 
each  foot  of  the  earth's  surface,  we  find  that  there  is  in 
the  air  over  each  acre  of  ground  about  seven  tons  of 
this  gas.  This  is  a  considerable  quantity,  and,  when 
calculated  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth,  amounts 
to  billions  of  tons.  It  is  found  to  be  just  graduated 
to  the  wants  of  both  plants  and  animals.  All  living 
things,  as  has  been  said,  die  in  an  atmosphere  which 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  this  gas.  Plants, 
however,  require  a  certain  portion  of  it  to  be  spread 
through  the  air,  that  they  may  draw  it  in  through  their 
leaves.  This  is  necessary  to  their  life,  as  they  will 
not  live  for  any  length  of  time  in  an  atmosphere  where 
there  is  no  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  will  not  flourish  if 
the  proportion  of  ^o^th  be  greatly  reduced.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  this  proportion  be  much  increased,  if 
more  carbonic  acid  be  introduced  into  the  air,  the  effect 
is  also  injurious.  The  proportion  of  carbonic  acid 
may  with  benefit  be  increased,  according  to  some 
experiments,  so  long  as  the  sun  shines  and  daylight 
continues.  When  the  sun  goes  down,  however,  and 
darkness  comes  over  the  earth,  more  of  this  gas  than 
is  usually  present  does  harm.  We  see  then  that  the 
Creator  has  regulated  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  so 
that  there  is  just  enough  for  the  necessities  of  the  plant, 
and  not  so  much  as  to  injure  either  plants  or  animals, 
while  at  the  same  time  regard  has  been  had  to  the 
alternations  of  day  and  night. 


POKES    IN    THE    LEAVES    OF    PLANTS.  31 

SECTION  III.    CARBONIC  ACID  GAS   OF    THE  ATMOSPHERE    AB- 
SORBED AND  DECOMPOSED  BV  THE  LEAVES  OF   PLANTS. 

It  has  been  said  that  this  gas  is  necessary  to  the 
life  of  the  plant,  and  that  the  leaves  draw  it  in  from 
the  air.  Those  who  have  never  studied  the  structure 
of  the  leaf,  will  be  surprised  to  find  how  admirably 
it  is  adapted  to  this  purpose.  When  examined  by  a 
microscope,  its  whole  surface  is  seen  to  be  covered 
with  minute  pores,  both  above  and  beneath  :  each  of 
these  pores  is  a  species  of  mouth,  intended  to  receive 
food,  or  to  give  off  something  that  the  plant  no  longer 
requires.  These  pores  have  an  immense  variety  of 
shapes  and  sizes  in  different  leaves,  as  shown  by  the 
microscope.  A  high  magnifying  power  discovers  more 
than  170,000  openings  in  a  square  inch  upon  the  surface 
of  some  leaves  :  others  have  not  more  than  6  or  700. 

It  is  easy  for  any  person  to  satisf}7  himself  that  such 
pores  do  actually  exist,  and  that  the  different  sides  of 
the  same  leaf  have  different  properties.  A  common 
cabbage  leaf,  for  instance,  when  applied  with  the  under 
side  to  a  wound  or  cut,  will  draw  quite  powerfully, 
inducing  a  discharge,  while  the  upper  or  smooth  side 
will  produce  no  such  effect;  thus  showing  that  on  the 
under  side  are  pores  which  have  a  power  of  absorption. 

If  the  leaves  were  few  in  number  and  very  small,  it 
would  be  difficult  for  them  to  collect  enough  carbonic 
acid  from  the  air;  but  we  find  that  all  plants  which 
grow  rapidly  have  either  quite  large  leaves,  or  a  great 
number  of  small  ones.  Thus  they  are  able  to  expose 
a  great  extent  of  surface  to  the  passing  wind,  and  to 
draw  from  it  as  much  food  in  the  shape  of  carbonic 
acid  as  they  require.  It  has  been  found  that  very 
quick  growing  plants,  such  as  grape  vines,  melons, 
indian  corn,  etc.,  when  in  full  growth,  will  absorb  as 
it  passes  nearly  all  of  the  carbonic  acid  from  quite  a 
swift  current  of  air,  so  that  only  very  slight  traces  of 


32    LEAVES    ABSORB    CARBONIC    ACID   DURING    DAYLIGHT. 

it  can  afterwards  be  found.     How  active  must  every 
little  mouth  on  the  leaf  be  at  such  a  time! 

a.  The  effect  of  the  carbonic  acid  thus  absorbed,  is 
to  hasten  the  growth  of  the  plant  by  furnishing  part 
of  the  material  from  which  its  stalks,  stems,  leaves, 
etc.,  are  composed.  But  it  may  be  asked,  is  the  whole 
of  the  carbonic  acid  used,  or  only  a  part?  We  re- 
member that  it  is  composed  of  two  substances,  oxygen 
and  carbon;  are  both  of  these,  or  only  one,  retained? 

b.  It  is  not  difficult  for  the  reader  to  satisfy  himself 
on  this  point.  If  the  leaves  of  a  flourishing  growing 
plant  be  immersed  in  an  inverted  vessel  full  of  water, 
and  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  little  bubbles  of 
air  will  gradually  begin  to  form,  and  to  increase  in 
size  until  they  rise  and  collect  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
vessel.  If  fresh  branches  be  occasionally  placed  in 
the  water,  and  the  operation  thus  continued  for  a  time, 
enough  air  will  be  collected  for  purposes  of  experi- 
ment. It  will  then  be  found  that  this  air,  which  has 
thus  escaped  from  the  surface  of  the  leaves,  shows  all 
of  the  properties  which  were  described  under  oxygen. 
It  is  in  fact  pure  oxygen,  thus  showing  that  the  carbon 
of  the  carbonic  acid  is  retained  in  the  plant  to  con- 
stitute a  portion  of  its  bulk,  while  the  oxygen  goes  off 
through  the  pores  of  the  leaf.  The  pores  in  the  under 
side  of  the  leaf  usually  effect  the  absorption,  the  de- 
composition goes  on  in  the  interior,  and  the  oxygen  is 
given  off  through  the  pores  on  the  upper  part.  These 
pores  have  for  their  office  to  give  off,  while  that  of  the 
others  is  to  receive.  Some  plants  will  live  for  a  long 
time  if  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  is  kept  con- 
stantly wet;  if  the  upper  only  be  wet,  the  plant  soon 
dies.  If  either  surface  be  varnished,  so  as  to  stop  the 
pores,  great  injury  results. 

During  daylight  the  leaves  are  constantly  absorbing 
carbonic  acid,  and  giving  off  oxygen;  but  as  soon  as 


CARBON    OBTAINED    FROM    THE    SOIL.  33 

the  sun  goes  down,  a  change  takes  place  :  an  exami- 
nation will  now  show  that  it  is  carbonic  acid  which 
passes  off  from  the  leaves,  and  oxygen  that  is  being 
absorbed.  It  is  just  the  reverse  of  what  goes  on  during 
the  day. 

a.  This  curious  fact  shows  why  it  is  that  plants 
grow  so  rapidly  in  the  long  days  of  summer.  The 
nights  are  then  comparatively  a  small  portion  of  the 
day,  so  that  for  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  twenty- 
four  hours  the  plant  continues  to  absorb  carbonic  acid, 
and  to  build  itself  up  with  the  carbon  thus  obtained 

b.  In  Greenland  and  Kamschatka  the  summer  is  not 
more  than  two  or  three  months,  but  during  that  time 
it  is  always  daylight,  the  sun  scarcely  going  below 
the  horizon  at  all.  Certain  plants  are  thus  enabled 
to  grow  so  fast  as  to  mature  and  ripen  their  seed,  even 
in  that  short  summer.  We  see  howT  this  beautiful 
provision  of  nature  tends  to  equalize  different  climates. 
If  the  nights  of  the  short  Greenland  summers  were 
even  so  long  as  our  shortest,  their  crops  would  never 
ripen;  but  as  they  have  nearly  perpetual  day,  they  can 
get  enough  food  from  their  fields  to  sustain  life  during 
a  large  part  of  their  long  winter. 

SECTION  IV.  CARBON  ALSO  OBTAINED  BY  PLANTS  FROM 
THE  SOIL. 

We  see  that  plants  are  able  to  obtain  much  carbon 
from  the  air,  but  it  is  found  that  a  considerable  quan- 
tity comes  from  the  soil  also.  This  is  all,  in  one  form 
or  another,  drawn  in  through  the  roots.  The  rain 
water  which  falls  upon  the  surface,  and  all  of  the 
spring  water  found  there  already,  contains  some  car- 
bonic acid  dissolved.  This  water  entering  the  roots, 
carries  with  it  a  variety  of  substances  in  solution, 
which  the  plant  seems  to  use  or  not  as  it  may  require: 
among  these  is  carbonic  acid.     This  is  probably  the 


34  HUMUS    AND    HUMIC    ACID. 

chief  form  in  which  carbon  is  obtained  from  the  soil; 
but  there  exist  in  contact  with  the  roots,  other  sources 
of  this  important  article  of  food.  Every  soil  contains 
more  or  less  of  organic  matter,  derived  from  the  decay 
after  death  of  plants  and  animals.  Where  abundant, 
this  gives  a  black  color  to  the  soil,  and  one  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  it  is  frequently  described  by 
fanners  as  a  vegetable  mould.  While  plants,  etc.  are 
decaying  to  form  this  mould,  various  compounds  con- 
taining carbon  are  the  result.  Quite  a  number  of 
these  have  been  examined  by  chemists,  but  it  is  not 
necessary  to  say  much  of  them  here. 

a.  Humus  is  a  name  often  given  to  the  black  mould 
of  a  rich  vegetable  soil,  and  this  probably  because  a 
great  part  of  the  mould  consists  of  a  substance  called 
humic  acid.  This  acid  may  be  obtained  by  boiling 
some  rich  mould  or  peat  in  a  solution  of  common  soda, 
continuing  for  an  hour  or  two;  fdtering  through  a 
piece  of  blotting  paper,  and  then  making  the  liquid 
quite  sour  with  muriatic  acid.  Little  brown  flocks 
will  soon  begin  to  appear,  and  will  fall  to  the  bottom: 
these  are  humic  acid. 

b.  This  substance  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  a 
large  class  that  are  contained  in  the  organic  part  of 
the  soil.  They  all  consist  of  carbon,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen,  and  in  many  situations  are  extremely 
abundant.  They  do  not  decay  or  dissolve  very  easily, 
and  it  is  not  supposed  that  plants  get  a  large  part  of 
their  carbon  in  this  way.  It  seems  certain,  however, 
that  they  do  get  some;  and  it  is  found  that  in  most 
cases  where  soils  contain  much  of  this  organic  matter, 
they  are  quite  fertile.  In  all  ordinary  situations,  it  is 
supposed  that  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  carbon  in  plants 
comes  from  the  air,  the  remaining  third  in  various 
forms  from  the  soil.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
plants  cultivated-  year  after  year,  cause  the  organic 
matter  of  a  soil  to  diminish  quite  rapidly. 


PLANTS   DECOMPOSE    WATER.  35 

SECTION   V.   SOURCE   OF    THE   OXYGEN   AND    HYDROGEN   OF 
PLANTS. 

Beside  carbonic  acid,  the  leaves  of  plants  absorb 
through  their  pores  a  large  quantity  of  water.  During 
the  day  when  the  hot  sun  is  upon  them,  the  evapora- 
tion is  of  course  far  more  than  the  absorption,  and  in 
a  dry  time  the  leaves  may  be  seen  to  droop  in  the 
afternoon;  but  let  the  sun  be  obscured  and  the  atmo- 
sphere become  misty  and  damp,  and  they  soon  absorb 
enough  moisture  to  strengthen  their  failing  stems. 
Every  farmer  knows  that  a  light  shower,  which  only 
moistens  the  leaves  without  wetting  the  ground  at  all, 
will  revive  his  crops  for  many  hours.  Nothing  in  this 
case  can  have  been  taken  in  through  the  roots. 

Water,  as  has  been  said,  is  composed  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen.  These  two  bodies  are  needed  by  the  plant, 
and  water  is  consequently  not  only  of  service  in  mois- 
tening its  various  parts  and  furnishing  a  circulating 
fluid,  but  gives  its  oxygen  or  its  hydrogen  or  both,  as 
the  plant  may  happen  to  require.  Water  has  a  pe- 
culiar adaptation  to  this  purpose,  and  to  others  equally 
useful  in  the  interior  of  the  plant,  in  the  facility  with 
which  it  is  decomposed.  Carbonic  acid  and  other 
chemical  substances  only  decompose  with  great  dif- 
ficulty; but  the  elements  of  water,  a  substance  so 
universally  diffused  and  so  indispensable,  separate 
easily,  affording  hydrogen  here,  oxygen  there,  to  the 
necessities  of  the  plant. 

SECTION  VI.  SOURCES  OF  THE  NITROGEN  OF  PLANTS. 

We  have  now  seen  how  the  plant  gets  carbon, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  abundance;  but  there  is  yet 
one  more  of  the  organic  bodies,  which  are  so  necessary 
to  them:  this  is  nitrogen;  it  remains  for  us  to  consider 
the  most  probable  source  of  this  gas.     a.  As  it  has 


36    PLANTS  DO  NOT  OBTAIN  NITROGEN  FROM  THE  AIR. 

been  said  that  the  atmosphere  consists  of  oxygen  and 
nitrogen,  we  might  naturally  conceive  that  the  leaves 
absorb  this  gas,  as  well  as  carbonic  acid.  Experiments 
have  shown  that  this  is  not  the  case  to  any  extent. 
After  many  careful  trials,  it  has  not  yet  been  certainly 
proved  that  any  nitrogen  at  all  is  obtained  by  the 
greater  number  of  plants  in  this  way.  If  there  is,  the 
quantity  must  be  in  most  cases  very  trifling  indeed. 

b.  This  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  points  con- 
nected with  the  nutrition  of  plants.  Here  we  have, 
in  the  air  which  surrounds  the  plant,  and  presses 
against  every  part  of  it,  an  immense  quantity  of  the 
gas  nitrogen.  It  constitutes  four-fifths  of  the  whole 
atmosphere,  and  yet  we  cannot  find  that  plants  absorb 
it  in  any  quantity  whatever.  On  the  contrary,  as  we 
have  seen,  they  select  out  another  kind  of  gas,  car- 
bonic acid,  although  it  is  present  in  so  small  a  pro- 
portion as  s^j^th.  This  shows  conclusively  that  the 
leaves  do  not  draw  in  through  their  pores  every  thing 
that  is  presented  to  them  indiscriminately,  but  that 
they  have  a  power  of  choosing  those  kinds  of  food 
best  adapted  to  their  wants. 

c.  Thus  the  smallest  plant  has  the  power  of  doing 
what  man  by  his  unaided  senses  never  has  been  able 
to  accomplish,  and  which  he  has  only  learned  to  do 
by  artificial  means  within  a  few  years.  Every  little 
worthless  weed  by  the  wayside  has  its  leaves  spread, 
its  thousands  of  mouths  open,  selecting  and  drawing 
in  from  the  passing  air  food  best  adapted  to  its  wants. 

As  plants  obtain,  according  to  the  above  statements, 
little  if  any  of  their  nitrogen  from  the  air  directly 
through  their  leaves,  they  must  obviously  get  it  in 
some  way  through  their  roots.  There  are  two  bodies 
which  are  now  considered  the  chief  sources  of  supply: 
these  are  called  ammonia  and  nitric  acid. 

Ammonia  is  a  gas,  composed  of  nitrogen  and  hy- 
drogen.    We  do  not  find   it   largely  in  this  shape, 


AMMONIA    AND   NITRIC    ACID.  37 

however,  on  account  of  the  strong  tendency  which  it 
has  to  unite  with  other  bodies,  such  as  carbonic  acid, 
sulphuric  acid,  etc.  When  it  can  not  find  any  thing 
else,  it  is  at  once  absorbed  by  water,  which  will  take 
up  an  immense  quantity  of  it  before  becoming  satu- 
rated. A  pint  of  cold  water  will  absorb  between  6 
and  700  pints  of  ammonia.  The  aqua  ammonia  of 
the  shops,  is  water  through  which  ammonia  has  been 
passed  until  it  is  very  strong.  By  smelling  of  it,  the 
extremely  pungent  and  peculiar  odor  of  ammonia  is 
perceived.  The  strong  aqua  ammonia  is  so  powerful 
in  its  effects  as  to  take  away  the  breath,  and  cause  a 
momentary  suffocation.  A  more  agreeable  form  of 
ammoniacal  odor  is  in  the  ordinary  smelling  salts. 
These  are  usually  nothing  more  than  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, scented  in  various  ways  with  other  perfumes. 

The  properties  of  ammonia  ought  to  be  understood 
by  every  farmer,  because  it  is  a  substance  of  much 
importance  :  it  does  not  exist  so  abundantly  in  the 
soil  as  do  many  or  most  other  necessary  ingredients, 
and  consequently  he  ought  to  know  how  best  to  in- 
crease its  amount,  and  how  to  keep  it  on  his  farm 
when  he  has  got  it  there. 

Ammonia  is  very  easily  lost,  because  driven  from 
its  combinations  with  great  facility.  If,  for  instance, 
you  mix  with  muriate  of  ammonia,  a  compound  which 
has  little  or  no  smell  of  the  gas,  some  quicklime,  and 
rub  the  two  together,  there  will  immediately  a  strong 
smell  of  ammonia  be  perceived,  passing  off  into  the  air 
and  disappearing.  This  is  a  reason  why  quicklime 
should  not  be  mixed  with  manures  containing  am- 
monia, as  that  gas  is  driven  off  by  it,  and  the  value 
of  the  manure  greatly  diminished. 

Nitric  acid  (common  aquafortis)  is  another  impor- 
tant source  of  nitrogen.  This  acid  is  composed  of 
nitrogen  and  oxygen.  It  is  to  be  found  in  druggists' 
shops,  and  is  a  nearly  colorless  liquid,  having  a  pe- 
4 


38  NITRATES    OF    POTASH    AND    SODA. 

culiar  smell,  and  being  extremely  sour  and  corrosive. 
a.  When  strong,  it  destroys  the  skin,  and  in  all  cases 
turns  it  of  a  deep  yellow  color  which  can  not  be  re- 
moved by  washing,  b.  It  eats  holes  through  cloth, 
turning  it  to  a  bright  red  color,  c.  Like  ammonia 
and  the  acids  before  mentioned,  we  do  not  find  it 
naturally  as  a  pure  substance;  it  is  always  combined 
with  something  else.  One  of  the  most  common  forms 
is  nitrate  of  potash,  or  saltpetre.  Nitrate  of  soda  is 
also  often  found  in  nature,  d.  In  South  America,  this 
latter  is  so  abundant  as  to  be  brought  away  by  the 
shipload.  It  is  in  the  form  of  such  compounds  as  these 
that  nitric  acid  is  present  in  the  soil.  They  are  easily 
dissolved  in  water,  can  be  received  into  the  circulation 
of  plants  through  their  roots,  and  can  furnish  nitrogen 
as  readily  as  ammonia. 

In  some  situations  more  nitrogen  is  received  into 
the  plant  as  ammonia,  than  from  any  other  source;  in 
others,  more  as  nitric  acid.  I  consider  that  this  is 
owing  simply  to  the  quantity  of  either  that  may  be 
present  in  different  localities.  Both  kinds  of  manure 
produce  remarkable  results  when  applied  to  the  soil  of 
most  farms;  and  these  effects  are  nearly  or  quite 
identical  in  appearance,  showing  that  in  both  cases 
nitrogen  caused  the  improvement,  and  that  between 
these  two  forms  of  applying  it  there  is  little  choice. 


39 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF  THE  ORGANIC  SUBSTANCE  OF  PLANTS. 

Structure  of  the  Roots,  Stem  and  Leaves.  Course  of  the  sap. 
Composition  and  properties  of  water.  Great  number  of  organic 
bodies.  Woody  fibre,  Starch,  Sugar,  Gums.  Composition  of 
these  bodies  and  their  mutual  relations.  Organic  substances 
containing  Nitrogen.  Sources  of  organic  elements:  Carbon, 
Carbonic  acid,  Hydrogen,  Oxygen,  Nitrogen. 

SECTION  I.  STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  PLANT  IN 
ITS  SEVERAL  PARTS. 

The  different  external  parts  of  plants  are  well 
known,  they  consist  of  roots,  stems,  bark  or  epider- 
mis, and  leaves. 

The  internal  structure  and  the  functions  of  the  roots 
are  not  so  perfectly  understood  as  that  of  the  other 
parts,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  knowing  exactly  what 
occurs  underground.  At  a  short  distance  beneath  the 
surface  they  begin  to  divide,  sending  out  little  rootlets 
in  every  direction,  and  at  the  extreme  end  of  each  is 
a  small  bundle  of  soft,  minute,  white  fibres.  These 
are  all  so  many  mouths  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
stem.  If  you  place  the  roots  of  a  growing  tree  in 
certain  colored  liquids,  its  body  will  soon  become 
colored.  This  part  of  the  plant  has,  to  a  considerable 
extent  at  least,  a  power  of  selection,  as  it  is  found 
that  certain  substances  are  admitted  to  the  exclusion, 
either  partial  or  total,  of  others.  Some  coloring  solu- 
tions for  instance,  as  above,  enter  with  facility  and 
tinge  the  whole  stem  in  a  short  time,  while  others  are 
scarcely  absorbed  at  all.     The  same  must,  in  a  degree, 


40  STEM  AND  BARK  OF  FLAN'TS. 

be  true  of  various  kinds  of  food,  as  we  find  (bat  far 
more  of  one  kind  is  taken  than  of  another,  even  when 
both  are  present  in  equal  quantities. 

In  the  stem  are  numerous  little  tubes,  running  up 
and  down,  which  serve  to  convey  the  sap  absorbed  by 
the  roots  up  to  the  leaves.  It  passes  up  in  the  interior 
vessels  or  tubes,  and  passes  down  in  the  exterior,  or 
just  under  the  bark.  This  can  be  shown  by  the  ex- 
ample of  the  tree  and  the  colored  fluid,  just  referred 
to;  the  inner  part  of  the  tree  will  be  colored  first,  and 
finally  the  outer,  in  the  descent  of  the  sap,  after  it  has 
passed  out  to  the  extremities  of  the  branches. 

There  is  then  a  regular  circulation  between  the  soil 
and  the  plant;  sap  flows  up,  having  been  formed  in 
the  roots  and  stem,  out  of  the  various  substances 
drawn  in  from  the  soil,  and  ultimately  flows  down 
again  next  the  bark  and  out  into  the  soil. 

During  its  circuit  the  sap  undergoes  many  changes, 
and  deposits  such  of  its  constituents  as  are  necessary 
to  the  plant.  If  taken  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
stem,  it  will  be  found  thin;  as  it  goes  up,  it  appears 
thicker  and  thicker,  and  at  last  on  its  way  down  be- 
comes a  dense  substance,  to  which  the  name  of  cam- 
bium has  sometimes  been  given.  At  this  period  of 
its  round,  it  deposites,  between  the  inner  bark  and 
the  wood,  material  for  forming  the  annual  layer  of 
new  wood.  The  cause  of  this  ascent  and  descent  of 
sap  is  not  fully  known,  and  I  do  not  consider  it  neces- 
sary to  mention  here  the  numerous  plausible  theories 
that  have  been  advanced  regarding  it.  If  the  flow  is 
entirely  stopped,  either  upward  or  downward,  the 
plant  soon  dies.  This  is  shown  by  the  ordinary  opera- 
tion of  girdling  a  tree,  the  downward  flow  is  stopped 
and  no  new  wood  can  form. 

The  bark  is  quite  different  in  its  structure  from  the 
stem.  In  the  latter  part,  as  will  be  remembered,  the 
little  tubes  run  perpendicularly,  or  straight  up  and 


ORGANIC  BODIES  fN  PLANTS.  41 

down;  in  the  bark  they  run  vertically,  that  is,  toward 
the  centre  of  the  tree.  It  is  supposed  that  air  obtains 
access  to  the  body  of  the  plant  through  these  tubes. 

Leaves  are  usually  considered  an  extension  of  the 
bark.  They  have  a  net  work  of  veins  running  through 
them  in  every  direction,  conveying  fluids  to  all  parts; 
anil  also  have  on  their  outer  surfaces,  innumerable 
little  pores  or  mouths,  through  some  of  which  they 
breathe  out,  and  through  others  draw  in,  water  and 
various  gases.  These  functions  of  the  leaf  will  be 
noticed  again  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

SECTION  II.    THE  GREAT  NUMBER  AND  DIVERSITY  OF  ORGANIC 
BODIES  IN  PLANTS. 

The  organic  portion  in  these  several  parts  of  the 
plant,  consist  of  a  great  variety  of  substances,  with 
the  more  common  of  which  at  least,  the  farmer  ought 
to  be  acquainted. 

The  organic  bodies  of  plants  are  exceedingly 
numerous.  Almost  every  plant  has  some  one  or  more 
peculiar  to  itself.  Thus  we  see  indian  rubber  the 
product  of  one  tree,  gutta  percha  of  another,  sago  of 
another;  various  perfumes  from  one  plant,  and  dis- 
agreeable odors  from  another,  as  in  the  rose  or  the 
mignionette  of  one  class,  the  skunk  cabbage  or  the 
tomato  of  the  other;  some  also  have  a  pungent  or 
aromatic  taste,  such  as  the  sassafras  and  the  birch. 
In  short  the  variety  of  bodies  that  thus  communicate 
different  qualities  to  plants,  or  often  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  same  plant,  are  more  numerous  than 
would  be  believed  by  one  who  had  not  attended  some- 
what to  the  subject. 

The  different  oils  and  sugars,  for  instance,  which 
exist  in  vegetables,  may  be  counted  by  tens  and  twen- 
ties already,  while  new  kinds  are  constantly  being 

discovered;  so  with  the  various  extracts  which  can  be 

4# 


42  WATER. 

obtained  from  the  flowers  or  bark.  There  are  few 
plants  in  which  a  careful  examination  of  their  various 
parts  will  not  discover  from  fifteen  to  twenty  different 
organic  substances,  and  in  some  twice  that  numbei 
may  be  distinguished.  The  perfect  separation  and 
determination  of  such  bodies,  is  among  the  most  diffi- 
cult of  problems  of  modern  chemistry.  But  after  all,  the 
substances  which  make  up  the  great  bulk  of  plants 
are  few  in  number.  Those  which  give  the  color, 
taste,  smell,  or  peculiar  properties  of  that  kind,  to 
particular  plants,  generally  form  but  a  small  part  of 
their  whole  mass,  and  have  but  little  influence  on 
their  practical  value. 

SECTION7  III.    OF  WATER. 

In  order  to  explain  some  remarkable  properties  in 
the  substances  to  which  attention  will  soon  be  called,  it 
is  necessary  here  to  mention  the  composition  of  water. 

This  liquid,  so  universally  diffused  and  of  such  in- 
estimable value,  is  composed  of  but  two  gases,  oxygen 
and  hydrogen.  In  nine  pounds  of  water,  are  about 
one  of  hydrogen  and  eight  of  oxygen.  Although  the 
weight  of  oxygen  is  thus  greatest,  hydrogen  is  so 
light  that  it  constitutes  the  greatest  bulk,  so  that  by 
measure  there  is  only  one  gallon  of  oxygen  to  two  of 
hydrogen. 

a.  That  water  does  consist  of  these  two  gases  alone, 
may  be  shown  by  burning  hydrogen  in  an  atmosphere 
of  oxygen.  Water  will  immediately  begin  to  con- 
dense on  the  sides  of  the  vessel  used  by  the  experi- 
menter, and  will  soon  accumulate  so  as  to  run  down 
in  drops.  Some  of  the  French  chemists  once  tried 
this  experiment  on  a  large  scale,  continuing  it  for  a 
number  of  days,  and  obtained  several  pints  of  water. 
On  burning  a  jet  of  hydrogen  in  common  air,  under 
a  large  glass  vessel  open  at  bottom,  water  will  imme- 


WOODY  FIBRE.  43 

diately  be  formed  by  an  union  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
air,  and  will  condense  on  the  cool  surface  of  the  glass. 

b.  Water  exists  in  several  states:  1.  As  the  simple 
liquid;  2.  As  steam  or  vapor;  3.  As  ice  or  snow. 
Each  of  these  forms  have  their  peculiar  properties 
and  benefits.  As  a  fluid,  it  renders  the  bodies  of  all 
animals  plump,  moist,  and  elastic,  while  it  also  gives 
life  to  all  plants  and  vegetables,  forming  their  circu- 
lating fluids. 

As  a  vapor,  it  prevents  the  outer  surfaces  of  plants 
and  animals  from  drying  away  too  much,  intercepts 
the  rays  of  the  sun  which  would  otherwise  scorch  and 
burn  us,  and  performs  many  other  important  offices,  of 
which  there  is  not  space  to  speak  here.  As  ice,  its 
action  in  alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  thus  ex- 
panding and  contracting,  is  to  loosen  and  mellow  the 
soil.  This  is  the  effect  produced  by  ridging  stiff  clays 
in  autumn,  that  the  frost  may  have  free  access. 


SECTION  IV.    OF  ORGANIC  BODIES    CONTAINING   CARBON, 
HYDROGEN  AND  OXYGEN. 

By  far  the  most  abundant  body  in  the  organic  part 
of  all  or  nearly  all  plants,  is  called  woody  fibre,  some- 
times cellular  fibre.  This  is  the  stringy,  woody  part 
of  straw,  flax,  hemp,  wood,  &c.  If  any  of  them  are 
bruised  and  soaked  until  every  thing  that  can  be 
washed  away  is  gone,  a  mass  of  white  fibres  remains, 
which  is  tolerably  pure  woody  fibre.  Cotton  or  pith 
are  the  purest  natural  forms  of  this  substance,  a.  It 
is  white,  tasteless,  insoluble  in  water,  and  will  not  in 
its  natural  condition  support  life.  b.  It  constitutes 
the  largest  portion  of  nearly  all  plants,  that  is  in  their 
dry  state;  this  distinction  is  necessary,  because  many 
plants  lose  more  than  half  of  their  weight  of  water  by 
drying,  this  may  be  seen  in  most  of  the  common  grasses. 

Woody  fibre  is  eemposed  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and 


44  STARCH. 

oxygen.  Now  it  is  a  curious  point,  that  in  this 
woody  fibre,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  present  in  just 
the  proportions  to  form  water.  To  this  important 
fact  we  shall  refer  again. 

In  the  stems,  leaves,  husks,  bark,  and  in  most  cases 
the  roots,  woody  fibre  is  by  far  the  largest  constituent; 
but  in  the  seeds  and  fruits,  it  is  usually  much  smaller 
in  quantity. 

In  a  great  number  of  seeds,  starch  is  the  leading 
ingredient;  so  also  in  many  roots  that  are  used  for 
food.  a.  Starch  is  in  its  usual  appearance  well  known, 
as  a  white,  tasteless,  or  nearly  tasteless  substance.  It 
does  not  dissolve  even  in  warm  water,  but  forms  a 
species  of  jelly  with  it.  One  peculiar  property  is  that 
of  turning  blue  when  iodine  comes  in  contact  with  it. 
The  common  tincture  of  iodine  will  answer  for  this 
experiment:  the  smallest  possible  quantity  will  produce 
an  immediate  effect. 

b.  Starch  may  be  easily  obtained  by  making  some 
wheaten  flour  into  dough,  and  then  washing  on  a  very 
fine  sieve  or  linen  cloth  placed  above  a  convenient 
vessel.  As  the  dough  is  kneaded  under  successive 
portions  of  water,  the  water  becomes  milky,  and  the 
mass  of  dough  constantly  diminishes  in  bulk  until  at 
last  nothing  but  a  sticky  substance  called  ghden  re- 
mains ;  to  this  we  shall  refer  again.  If  the  milky 
liquid  which  has  run  through  the  cloth  be  allowed  to 
stand  quiet  for  some  hours,  a  deposit  of  fine  white 
grains  will  be  formed  on  the  bottom  of  the  containing 
vessel  :  this  is  the  starch. 

c.  It  may  also  be  easily  extracted  from  the  potato, 
by  grating  fine  and  washing.  The  starch  will  settle 
next  the  bottom;  the  skin,  woody  fibre,  etc.  will  float 
above,  so  that  they  may  be  poured  off.  In  this  way 
potato  starch  is  made. 

The  composition  of  starch  is  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen;  the  same,  it  will  be  remembered,  as  that  of 


SUGAR.  45 

woody  fibre.  These  substances  exist  in  the  same 
proportion  as  in  woody  fibre. 

Another  important  organic  substance  is  sugar.  Its 
properties  of  easy  solubility  and  sweetness  need  scarce- 
ly be  mentioned  here,  neither  will  they  require  illus- 
tration by  the  teacher. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  sugar  present  in  plants, 
but  the  kind  called  cane  sugar  is  most  abundant  and 
important.  It  is  that  which  exists  in  the  stalk  of  the 
sugar  cane,  the  root  of  the  sugar  beet,  the  trunk  of  the 
sugar  maple,  etc.  etc.  Sugar  blackens  and  becomes 
a  species  of  charcoal  when  burned  :  it  consists  of 
carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  These  same  three 
substances  also  form  the  gums,  resins,  and  oily  matters 
which  exist  so  abundantly  in  certain  trees,  as  the 
pines,  and  in  certain  seeds,  as  linseed. 

Thus  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  plants  is  made  up 
of  substances  containing  only  these  three  gases.  We 
now  come  to  a  singular  fact,  hinted  at  with  relation 
to  one  of  the  substances  in  the  early  part  of  this  sec- 
tion :  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  woody  fibre,  starch, 
sugar  and  many  gums,  are  in  the  proper  proportions 
to  form  water.  The  plant  then  can  make  these  bo- 
dies without  difficulty,  for  we  have  seen  that  it  absorbs 
both  carbonic  acid  and  water  through  its  leaves  :  if 
now  the  oxygen  of  the  carbonic  acid  be  given  off 
through  the  leaves  during  the  day,  as  we  have  already 
mentioned  that  it  is,  there  remains  only  carbon  and 
water,  or  carbon,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  just  the  sub- 
stances to  form  those  bodies  which  wc  have  named 
above. 

In  the  case  of  woody  fibre,  sugar,  starch  and  gum, 
the  quantity  of  carbon  and  of  the  elements  of  water  is 
the  same,  so  that  they  are  in  fact  identical  in  com- 
position. How  strange  that  they  should  be  so  different 
in  properties  !  We  can  not  explain  why  this, is;  but 
yet   the  chemist   is  able  to  make  sugar  from  either 


46  CHEMICAL    CHANGES. 

woody  fibre,  gum  or  starch.  It  is  not  more  strange 
than  a  thousand  other  things  in  nature.  We  have 
seen,  for  instance,  that  carbonic  acid  puts  out  all  fire 
and  destroys  life;  yet  carbon,  one  of  the  substances  of 
which  it  is  composed,  burns  most  violently  in  oxygen, 
the  other;  and  this  other  body,  oxygen,  is,  when  alone, 
the  great  supporter  of  vitality  :  mingled  in  the  air,  it 
is  what  sustains  all  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  all 
combustion  also. 

It  has  been  incidentally  noticed,  that  certain  of  the 
bodies  above  named  may  be  changed  by  chemical 
means.  Some  of  these  changes  are  important,  and  de- 
serve a  rather  more  extended  notice,  a.  Woody  fibre, 
if  ground  fine  and  subjected  to  a  certain  degree  of  heat 
for  a  long  time,  becomes  hard  and  yellow  in  color,  and 
finally  can  be  ground  like  flour.  In  this  state  it  is 
partly  soluble,  and  can  with  yeast  be  made  into  a  light 
wholesome  bread  :  it  has  also  been  partially  changed 
into  a  substance  resembling  starch  or  gum.  b.  Starch, 
if  heated  at  a  temperature  just  below  scorching  for  a 
day  or  two,  gradually  becomes  yellow  and  finally  quite 
soluble,  with  a  sweetish  taste.  It  has  become  dextrine, 
or  what  is  called  by  calico  printers  British  gum.  This 
change  takes  place  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the 
ordinary  baking  of  bread,  c.  By  the  action  of  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  in  certain  proportions  and  at  certain 
temperatures,  starch  may  be  changed  first  into  gum, 
and  then  into  sugar. 

We  thus  see  that  this  class  of  bodies  are  not  only 
similar  in  composition,  but  that  a  change  from  one  to 
the  other  may  be  effected  with  much  ease.  If  we  can 
do  this,  how  much  the  more  readily  can  it  be  effected 
in  the  interior  of  the  plant  !  That  such  changes  do 
take  place  there,  and  that  they  are  of  much  practical 
importance,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  point  out  in 
subsequent  chapters. 


NITROGENOUS    BODIES,   GLUTEN,    ETC.  47 


SECTION   V.    OF    ORGANIC   BODIES  CONTAINING  CARBON, 
HYDROGEN,    OXYGEN    AND    NITROGEN. 

Although  the  substances  containing  the  three  first 
named  gases  only,  make  up  more  than  nine-tenths  of 
most  plants,  yet  there  is  a  class  which  in  addition  to 
them  contains  nitrogen.  This  class,  though  so  small 
in  proportion,  is,  as  will  be  seen  ultimately,  one  of 
remarkable  importance. 

The  most  easily  obtained  of  these  nitrogenous  bo- 
dies, is  the  one  already  mentioned  as  left  behind  when 
the  dough  of  wheaten  flour  is  washed  upon  a  cloth,  to 
obtain  the  starch.  a.  It  is  sticky,  tenacious,  and 
somewhat  like  glue  in  its  character  :  its  name  gluten 
has  reference  to  these  properties,  b.  When  heated,  it 
swells  up  to  a  great  bulk,  becoming  quite  full  of  holes. 
For  this  reason  flour  which  has  much  gluten  in  it  is 
called  by  the  bakers  strong,  because  light  porous  bread 
can  be  easily  made  from  it,  and  because  it  absorbs  and 
retains  much  water,  c.  The  proportion  of  gluten  in 
wheat  is  from  ten  to  twenty  per  cent.  The  wheat  of 
warm  countries  is  said  to  contain  more  than  that  grown 
in  temperate  latitudes. 

Several  other  grains  contain  gluten,  but  none  so 
much  as  wheat;  they  all,  however,  have  bodies  of  the 
same  class,  not  generally  resembling  gluten  in  ap- 
pearance and  properties,  but  all  containing  nitrogen. 
To  these  different  names  have  been  given  :  the  nitro- 
genous substance  in  peas  and  beans  is  called  legumin; 
that  in  indian  corn,  zein.  In  some  other  plants  there 
are  substances  of  the  same  kind,  called  vegetable  albu- 
men, casein,  et:.  These  are  all  somewhat  similar  in 
their  properties  and  composition.  There  is  a  little 
sulphur  and  phosphorus  in  gluten,  and  in  these  nitro- 
genous bodies  generally,  beside  the  four  gases  already 
mentioned. 


48  SUPPLIES    OF    ORGANIC    FOOD. 

It  will  now  be  seen  what  an  important  part  these 
four  elements  act,  in  the  economy  of  nature.  From 
them  all  the  forms  of  vegetable  life  are  built  up;  they 
are  constantly  passing  from  one  state  of  combination 
into  another,  and  yet  always  come  out  at  last  them- 
selves unchanged.  This  is  for  the  reason  that  they 
are  truly,  and  not  in  the  common  sense,  elementary 
bodies.  If  we  take  a  piece  of  wood  for  examination, 
wre  can  divide  it  by  various  means  into  oxygen,  carbon 
and  hydrogen;  but  we  fail  in  any  attempt  to  subdivide 
again  either  of  these  three  bodies.  Those  bodies  then 
are  elementary,  chemically  speaking,  which  wTe  can 
not  by  any  means  decompose  or  separate,  which  we 
can  not  show  to  be  compound.  There  are  in  all  be- 
tween fifty  and  sixty  of  these  elements  known,  and 
among  them  are  the  four  gases  the  functions  of  which 
we  have  been  considering.  Sulphur  and  phosphorus 
are  also  elements. 

SECTION   VI.    OF    THE    SUPPLIES   OF    ORGANIC    FOOD   TO 
PLANTS. 

The  sources  from  whence  plants  derive  their  various 
kinds  of  organic  food,  are  different  in  different  locali- 
ties. 

Carbon  is  mostly  drawn  in  from  the  air  in  the  form 
of  carbonic  acid  :  some  also  comes  from  the  soil,  but 
by  far  the  greater  part  from  the  air.  The  quantity 
required  for  the  support  of  all  the  vegetation  upon  the 
earth's  surface  must  be  immense,  especially  when  we 
know  the  fact  that  carbon  in  general  constitutes  fully 
half,  and  sometimes  much  more  than  half  of  its  weight. 
When  we  remember  that  the  proportion  of  carbonic 
acid  in  the  air  is  but  about  ^-s^oth  °f  a^>  there  may 
seem  to  be  some  danger  of  its  exhaustion. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  weight  of  this  gas  in  the 
air  over  every  acre  of  the  earth's  surface,  is  about 
seven  tons.     This  quantity,  if  the  land  were  all  under 


CONSUMPTION  AND  RESTORATION  OF  CARBONIC  ACID.    49 

cultivation,  would  be  exhausted  in  from  seven  to  ten 
years.  There  would  thus  be  some  cause  for  apprehen- 
sion on  this  point,  could  we  not  indicate  several  sources 
which  constantly  tend  to  keep  up  the  necessary  supply. 

1.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  the 
breathing  of  animals:  the  pure  air  that  is  drawn  into 
the  lungs  at  each  breath,  returns  charged  with  carbonic 
acid.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  air  in  a  close  room 
where  there  are  many  people  becomes  so  unwholesome, 
and  after  a  time  intolerable.  The  carbonic  acid 
breathed  out  into  the  air,  has  rendered  it  deleterious 
to  animal  life.  A  direct  proof  of  the  quantity  of  car- 
bonic acid  breathed  in  this  way  from  the  lungs,  may 
be  given  by  blowing  through  a  tube  into  lime  water, 
made  by  pouring  water  upon  common  quicklime  and 
allowing  it  to  settle  and  become  clear.  The  carbonic 
acid  unites  with  the  lime,  and  the  clear  lime  water 
becomes  in  a  few  moments  quite  milky,  owing  to  the 
formation  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

2.  Another  source  from  whence  carbonic  acid  is 
derived  in  immense  quantities,  is  ordinary  combustion. 
All  combustible  bodies  used  for  fires,  produce  this  gas 
while  burning.  Carbon,  in  one  form  or  another,  is 
the  leading  combustible  substance  in  all  kinds  of  fuel, 
in  wood,  coal,  charcoal,  oil,  resin,  pitch,  turpentine, 

1  etc.  While  burning,  the  carbon  unites  with  oxygen, 
and  becomes  carbonic  acid.  Whenever  then  combus- 
tion is  going  on,  this  gas  is  largely  produced,  a.  An 
instance  is  to  be  seen  in  the  practice  of  suicide  by 
means  of  burning  charcoal.  In  France,  particularly, 
the  misguided  and  wicked  persons  who  thus  rashly 
desire  to  take  away  their  own  lives,  light  a  pan  of 
charcoal  and  shut  themselves  up  with  it  in  a  close 
room.  The  carbonic  acid  produced  soon  fills  the  room, 
and  in  a  short  time  destroys  life.  b.  It  is  easy  to  see 
that  combustion  must  annually  send  vast  quantities  of 
this  gas  into  the   atmosphere.     Particularly  is  this 

5 


50  SOURCE    OF   HYDROGEN   AND    OXYGEN. 

true  in  cold  climates,  where  during  winter  fires  are  so 
numerous  and  constant. 

3.  In  some  districts  large  quantities  of  carbonic  acid 
pass  off  into  the  air  from  fissures  in  the  earth's  surface  : 
this  is  no  doubt  produced  by  volcanic  action  at  a  great 
depth. 

4.  Another  source  is  natural  decay  and  decomposi- 
tion. It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  if  you  leave  a  piece  of 
wood  to  decay,  the  ultimate  results  will  be  the  same 
as  if  it  had  been  burned  in  the  commencement.  The 
action  is  slower,  requiring  often  years  to  complete  it; 
but  the  products  are  the  same,  that  is,  carbonic  acid 
and  water.  Decay  has,  for  this  reason,  been  called  a 
slow  combustion. 

We  see  therefore  that  the  constant  tendency  in  every 
species  of  destruction,  decomposition,  or  decay  in 
animal  and  vegetable  bodies,  is  to  the  production  and 
liberation  of  carbonic  acid.  The  sources  already 
indicated  are  quite  sufficient  to  supply  the  quantities 
annually  withdrawn  from  the  atmosphere  by  vegeta- 
tion. 

The  hydrogen  required  by  plants  is  readily  obtained. 
Water  consists  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  :  in  the  form 
of  a  liquid,  it  is  drawn  up  by  the  roots;  as  a  vapor,  it 
is  absorbed  by  the  leaves  from  the  atmosphere.  This 
may  be  seen  in  the  great  effect  of  a  trifling  shower 
during  dry  weather.  Even  if  there  is  only  enough 
rain  to  barely  moisten  the  surface  of  the  parched  earth, 
the  leaves  before  drooping  are  revived,  and  the  whole 
plant  assumes  a  flourishing  appearance  :  no  water  has 
reached  its  roots,  but  it  has  absorbed  a  portion  of  the 
shower  through  its  leaves.  This  one  source  of  supply 
affords  ample  store  of  hydrogen. 

Oxygen  is  also  to  be  obtained  by  the  plant  from 
water.  Carbonic  acid  too,  it  will  be  remembered,  is 
partly  composed  of  this  gas.  There  can  thus  be  no 
difficulty  as  to  the  plants  obtaining  oxygen,  and  no 
fear  of  exhausting  it  from  the  atmosphere. 


SOURCES  OF  THE  NITROGEN  OF  PLANTS.  51 

The  source  of  the  nitrogen  in  plants  is  not  so  clear. 
We  know  that  four-fifths  of  the  air  surrounding  all 
plants  is  nitrogen,  and  yet  it  is  proved  that  but  little 
if  any  of  this  nitrogen  is  absorbed  through  their  leaves; 
neither  can  it  be  shown  to  enter  in  any  quantity 
through  their  roots.  We  find,  however,  that  the  soil 
is  the  place  from  which  it  comes,  but  that  it  is  always 
in  some  form  chemically  united  with  other  bodies. 
The  two  substances,  ammonia  and  nitric  acid,  described 
under  a  previous  chapter  as  containing  nitrogen,  are 
the  chief  sources  of  supply  to  plants  :  this  fact  partly 
explains  their  great  efficacy  as  manures.  They  are 
both  present  in  fertile  soils,  sometimes  the  one  and 
sometimes  the  other  in  largest  quantity.  Both  are 
soluble  in  water,  and  therefore  can  without  difficulty 
enter  the  roots. 

It  will  now  be  easily  perceived  that  these  organic 
bodies  to  which  attention  has  been  so  frequently  called, 
are  indeed  of  very  great  importance.  They  constitute 
the  great  bulk  of  vegetable  life  in  all  of  its  forms. 
In  the  air  and  the  soil,  they  are  indispensable  to  life. 
We  cannot  see  them,  yet  depend  on  them  for  existence 
itself.  If  half  of  the  jiufith  of  carbonic  acid  present 
in  the  atmosphere  were  withdrawn,  nearly  all  valuable 
plants  would  cease  to  flourish,  and  as  a  consequence 
animal  life  too  would  gradually  become  extinct. 


52 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  SOIL. 

Composition  of  the  soil :  divided  into  an  organic  and  an  inorganic 
part.  Quantity,  origin,  necessity  and  constitution  of  organic 
matter  :  how  to  increase  it  in  the  soil.  Formation  of  mineral 
part  of  soils ;  chiefly  from  limestones,  sandstones  and  clays. 
Classification  of  soils.  Other  substances  present  beside  three 
above  named;  their  number  and  names.  Cause  of  difference 
between  fertile  and  barren  soils. 

SECTION   I.    THE'  PROPORTION  AND  ORIGIN  OF    THE  ORGANIC 
MATTER    IN    THE    SOIL. 

Having  now  become  familiar  with  the  substances 
which  are  found  in  both  the  organic  and  the  inorganic 
parts  of  plants,  we  must  next  inquire  what  is  the 
connection  between  the  plant  and  the  soil.  We  find 
that  one  soil  produces  better  crops  than  another;  that 
plants  will  grow  in  some  places,  that  will  not  flourish 
at  all  in  others;  that  manure  is  not  needed  on  some 
soils,  while  it  is  quite  indispensable  on  others.  The 
reasons  for  these  and  many  other  differences  that  might 
be  mentioned,  are  only  to  be  discovered  by  chemical 
analyses  of  the  soil  itself. 

The  first  point  which  we  are  able  to  establish,  is  the 
fact  that  here  as  in  the  plant,  are  to  be  found  the  two 
great  classes  of  organic  and  inorganic  substances.  If 
a  portion  of  soil  is  heated  on  a  knife-blade  or  a  thin 
iron  or  tin  plate,  it  will  smoke  and  blacken;  if  the 
heat  be  continued,  the  smoke  will  after  a  time  cease, 
the  blackness  disappear,  and  the  remaining  earth  will 
be  usually  of  a  whitish  or  reddish  color.     It  is  like  the 


ORGANIC    MATTER    IN    SOILS.  53 

ash  left  behind  on  burning  wood  or  straw,  excepting 
that  there  is  far  more  of  it. 

The  ash  from  plants,  it  will  be  remembered,  is  but 
a  small  proportion  of  their  weight,  from  one  to  four- 
teen lbs.  in  a  hundred:  in  soils  the  incombustible  part 
is  usually  more  than  ninety  lbs.  in  a  hundred,  frequent- 
ly ninety-five.  In  some  peaty  or  rich  forest  lands, 
indeed,  the  organic  part  is  largest;  but,  as  all  know, 
these  constitute  but  a.  small  proportion  of  our  ordinary 
soils.  This  organic  matter  was  not  originally  present 
in  the  soil:  it  has  all  accumulated  there  by  the  death 
and  decay  of  plants  and  animals.  The  first  soil, 
formed  by  the  crumbling  and  decomposition  of  the 
bare  rock,  must  have  been  entirely  destitute  of  this 
part.  Some  species  of  living  things,  however,  existed 
even  there,  some  forms  of  vegetation  and  of  animal 
life;  as  these  died,  they  mingled  with  the  broken  down 
rocks,  and  became  food  for  new  plants  of  higher  or- 
ders; thus  their  remains  gradually  gathered,  until  the 
result  was  our  present  surface  soils. 

Fertile  soils  always  contain  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  this  organic  matter.  There  is  no  rule  as  to 
the  quantity  that  should  be  present:  we  find  them  very 
fertile,  containing  all  the  way  from  two  to  fifty  per 
cent,  and  even  upward;  though  it  may  be  said  that 
permanently  rich  strong  soils  seldom  contain  less  than 
from  five  to  ten  per  cent. 

When  there  is  more  than  fifty  per  cent,  and  the  soil 
is  moist,  an  injurious  effect  is  produced,  the  soil  be- 
coming what  is  called  sour  :  nothing  but  poor  wiry 
grass  will  grow.  The  reasons  of  and  the  remedy  for 
this  result,  will  be  considered  in  a  subsequent  chapter*. 

*  I  have  said  that  there  is  no  rule  as  to  the  precise  quantity  of 
organic  matter  that  ought  to  be  present,  that  is  within  5  to  40  or 
50  per  cent.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  soil  with  30  or  40 
per  cent  seems  to  be  in  no  way  superior  to  that  which  only  has 
4  to  5  per  cent.  Thus  we  can  not  speak  definitely  as  to  any 
necessary  proportion. 

5* 


54  NECESSITY    FOR    ORGANIC   MATTER. 

Having  explained  the  origin  of  this  organic  matter, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  briefly,  that  it  is  com- 
posed of  the  same  four  organic  substances  previously 
named,  Carbon,  Hydrogen,  Nitrogen,  Oxygen. 


SECTION  II.    NECESSITY  FOR  ORGANIC  MATTER    IN  THE  SOIL, 
AND    ITS    LIABILITY    TO    EXHAUSTION. 

This  part  is  necessary  in  the  soil  for  several  reasons. 

1.  It  enables  the  land,  if  light  and  sandy,  to  retain 
moisture,  and  also  to  retain  manures  much  longer  than 
it  otherwise  would;  to  stiff  and  clayey  soils  it  gives 
mellowness  and  lightness. 

2.  Another  important  effect  in  cold  climates,  is  the 
darker  color  which  it  imparts  to  the  surface.  A  dark 
colored  soil  absorbs  more  heat  than  a  light  one,  being 
consequently  warmer  and  earlier.  This  is  seen  in  the 
fact  that  snow  melts  sooner  from  the  ploughed  field 
than  from  the  meadow  in  similar  situations;  from  the 
dark  garden  bed,  than  from  the  gravelled  walk. 

3.  Beside  these  useful  purposes,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  organic  part  of  the  soil,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  ministers  food  directly  to  the  plant  through  its 
roots.  The  supply  obtained  in  this  way  varies  with 
the  situation,  but  is  of  much  importance  to  plants,  as 
shown  by  their  increased  luxuriance  when  it  is  fur- 
nished them  in  a  soil  previously  deficient. 

This  consumption  of  organic  matter  by  plants  to 
form  their  own  bulk,  shows  how  it  is  that  land  long 
cultivated  and  scantily  manured,  at  last  becomes  very 
poor  in  this  part.  Each  crop  has  carried  away  a 
portion  of  it,  more  than  has  been  returned  in  the  small 
quantity  of  manure  applied.  Another  way  in  which 
it  is  exhausted,  is  by  frequent  ploughing  and  stirring, 
whereby  it  is  exposed  to  the  air,  and  consequently 
decomposes  rapidly.  If  you  bury  straw  or  other  or- 
ganic matter  deep  under  the  surface,  so  as  to  be  ex- 


METHODS   OF    SUPPLYING    ORGANIC    MATTER.  55 

eluded  from  the  air,  it  will  remain  almost  unchanged 
for  years;  but  as  soon  as  you  bring  it  toward  the 
surface  where  the  air  can  obtain  access,  decay  com- 
mences. 

There  are  then  two  ways  in  which  this  disappear- 
ance of  organic  substances  goes  on  in  the  soil:  first, 
as  it  is  used  for  the  food  of  plants;  second,  as  it  is 
decomposed  by  being  brought  in  contact  with  air. 

From  what  has  now  been  stated,  it  is  obviously  for 
the  interest  of  the  farmer  to  keep  up  the  supply  of 
organic  matter  in  his  soil :  an  equivalent  at  least  for 
every  thing  taken  off  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be 
returned  in  the  shape  of  manure;  peat  and  composts 
are  good  forms  of  adding  large  quantities. 

But  the  best  way  of  all  when  the  land  is  run  down, 
is  to  cultivate  green  crops  for  ploughing  under;  such 
as  clover,  buckwheat,  vetches,  etc.  etc.  a.  Though 
plants  draw  much  of  their  organic  part  from  the  soil, 
yet  the  greater  proportion  comes  from  the  air  through 
the  leaves  ;  consequently  when  a  crop  of  clover  is 
ploughed  in,  there  is,  in  addition  to  what  it  has  taken 
from  the  soil,  much  more  than  half  its  weight  which 
came  from  the  air,  aDd  is  therefore  a  clear  gain  to  the 
soil.  In  this  way  the  organic  matter  may  be  increased, 
and  even  the  poorest  land  be  gradually  brought  up  to 
a  state  of  fertility,  b.  Every  good  farmer  should 
watch  his  fields  carefully,  and  see  that  they  do  not 
become  deficient  in  this  very  important  part.  When- 
ever or  wherever  we  see  land  losing  it  from  year  to 
year,  it  is  certain  that  there  is  bad  management  some- 
where. 

The  farmer  must  not  suppose  that  by  this  or  any 
other  system  he  can  bring  up  his  worn  out  land  in  one 
or  two  years  :  the  progress  of  improvement  will  be 
gradual.  He  must  persevere  in  the  use  of  green  crops, 
bringing  them  in  frequently,  and  returning  at  the  same 
time  in  the  shape  of  manure  as  much  as  may  be  of  the 


56  DERIVATION    OF    SOILS. 

other  crops  taken  off.  Above  all  he  must  not,  as  soon 
as  his  land  is  so  far  recovered  that  his  clover  or  other 
green  crop  begins  to  be  heavy,  yield  to  any  temptation 
to  cut  it  off;  for  this  is  returning  to  the  old  system  of 
exhaustion.  The  object  should  be  to  keep  the  land 
steadily  improving;  and  to  that,  for  the  few  first  years, 
all  other  considerations  should  give  way.  When  it 
is  fully  established  as  a  fertile  and  well  stocked  soil, 
constant  watchfulness  will  keep  it  in  that  condition 
without  much  expense;  and  the  farmer  will  soon  find 
that  it  is  far  cheaper  to  cultivate  good  land  and  keep 
it  good,  than  to  live  on  a  farm  where  every  thing  is 
taken  out  and  nothing  put  in. 

SECTION   III.    OF    THE    DERIVATION    OF    SOILS,    AND   THEIR 
CLASSIFICATION. 

I  have  already  said  that  the  mineral  part  of  soils  is 
derived  from  the  decomposition  or  crumbling  down  of 
the  solid  rocks.  In  every  neighborhood  may  be  seen 
instances  of  this  crumbling  down  :  with  some  rocks, 
as  granite,  it  is  very  slow,  scarcely  perceptible  from 
one  year  to  another;  with  others  it  is  more  rapid,  as 
some  sandstones  and  limestones;  with  others  still  al- 
most immediate,  as  some  slates  which  fall  to  pieces 
whenever  they  are  brought  to  the  surface.  However 
quickly  or  slowly  this  crumbling  takes  place,  a  soil  is 
at  last  made,  and  of  course  resembles  in  its  composition 
that  of  the  rock  from  which  it  was  formed. 

The  greater  part  of  the  rocks  which  appear  on  the 
surface  of  our  earth,  are  varieties  of  sandstones,  lime- 
stones or  clays,  or  mixtures  of  the  three*. 

1.  Sandstone  is  often  known  as  freestone,  and  is 
common  in  many  parts  of  this  country,  being  a  va- 
luable building  material.     Our  light  sandy  soils  were 

*  This  is  a  popular  and  not  strictly  scientific  classification,  and 
is  to  be  considered  only  as  a  general  description. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    SOILS.  57 

nearly  all  originally  formed  from  this  rock.  Many  of 
these  are  very  poor;  but  there  are  some  sandstones 
which  make  most  excellent  soils,  as  rich  as  any  that 
are  cultivated.  In  particular  cases  they  contain  so 
much  lime  as  to  be  nearly  marls,  and  then  form  very 
fertile  soils.  Very  many  sandstones  crumble  away 
quite  readily,  some  showing  the  action  of  the  atmo- 
sphere almost  immediately  upon  exposure.  For  this 
reason  the  soils  are  ordinarily  of  good  depth. 

2.  Limestone  is  also  common,  and  there  are  few 
places  where  a  teacher  can  not  find  some  to  exhibit  to 
his  scholars.  It  is  found  of  all  colors  from  white  to 
black,  and  makes  a  great  variety  of  soils.  As  a  ge- 
neral rule  these  soils  are  good,  and  capable  of  bearing 
very  excellent  crops.  There  is  much  variation  among 
the  limestones  as  to  ease  of  decomposition.  Many  of 
them  form  a  deep  soil  very  soon,  but  there  are  some  of 
the  blue  mountain  limestones  which  decompose  with 
exceeding  slowness.  On  these  the  soil  is  thin,  but 
usually  of  rather  good  quality,  especially  for  pastures. 

3.  Clay  is  the  principal  ingredient  in  roofing  slate, 
in  school  slates,  and  in  what  are  called  shales.  Be- 
side this,  as  is  well  known,  it  exists  in  large  beds, 
from  which  are  made  pipes,  bricks,  tiles,  etc.  etc. 
Whenever  it  occurs  largely  in  soils,  they  are  stiff, 
tenacious,  and  nearly  impervious  to  moisture.  In 
consequence  water  remains  on  the  surface,  and  makes 
them  wet,  difficult  to  plough,  and  hard  to  cultivate  in 
any  way.  They  are,  however,  usually  of  good  quality, 
and  by  proper  skill  may  be  made  most  valuable. 

Some  writers  have  classified  soils,  according  as  they 
contained  more  or  less  of  one  of  these.  First  would 
be  a  sand,  then  a  sandy  loam,  then  a  clay  loam,  a  stiff 
clay,  and  finally  a  brick  or  pipe  clay,  the  last  being 
too  stiff  for  cultivation.  Soils  in  which  lime  existed 
largely,  would  be  called  calcareous.  Where  there 
was  more  than  20  to  25  per  cent,  it  would  be  a  marl. 


58  CLASSIFICATION    OF    SOILS. 

Some  definite  rules  of  this  kind  might  prove  quite 
useful  to  farmers  in  describing  soils. 

Prof.  Johnston  has  proposed  the  following  : 

1.  Pure  clay,  such  as  pipe  clay  or  porcelain  clay;  from 

this  no  sand  can  be  removed  by  washing. 

2.  Strong  clay,  brick  clay,  contains  from  5  to  20  per 

cent  of  siliceous  sand. 

3.  Clay  loam  has  from  20  to  40  per  cent  of  fine  sand. 

4.  A  loam,  has  from  40  to  70  per  cent  of  sand. 

5.  A  sandy  loam,  has  from  70  to  90  per  cent. 

6.  A  light  sand  has  less  than  10  per  cent  of  clay. 

This  classification  may  easily  be  made  by  means  of 
simple  washing.  The  soil  should  first  be  dried,  and 
then  after  boiling  in  water  should  be  thoroughly  stirred 
in  some  convenient  vessel.  The  sand  will  settle  first, 
and  when  it  is  at  the  bottom,  the  liquid  above,  hold- 
ing the  fine  clay,  etc.  in  suspension,  may  be  poured 
off;  when  this  has  been  done  a  few  times,  nothing 
will  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  beside  nearly 
pure  sand;  this  may  be  dried  and  weighed,  and  the 
quantity  will  indicate  to  which  class  of  the  above  the 
soil  belongs. 

It  is  always  possible  to  ascertain  if  there  be  much 
lime  in  a  soil,  by  adding  a  little  muriatic  acid,  such 
as  may  be  obtained  at  any  apothecaries.  This  acid,  as 
soon  as  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  lime,  if  there  be  any, 
causes  a  brisk  effervescence,  owing  to  the  bubblings  up 
and  escape  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  expelled 
from  its  combination  with  lime  by  a  stronger  acid.  It 
is  easy  in  this  way  to  ascertain  if  any  specimen  of  earth 
is  a  marl  or  not.  Such  a  simple  test  would  often  save 
the  farmer  much  trouble  and  expense,  by  preventing 
him  from  applying  useless  material  to  his  soil  for  the 
purpose  of  fertilizing  it.  The  distinctions  between 
light  and  heavy  soils,  so  common  among  farmers,  all 


INORGANIC    SUBSTANCES    IN    SOILS.  59 

arise  from  the  different  proportions  of  sand  and  clay 
which  the  various  soils  contain. 

The  light  soils  are  most  easily  and  cheaply  culti- 
vated, and  are  found  to  be  particularly  well  adapted 
to  the  growing  of  some  crops,  such  as  barley,  rye, 
buckwheat,  etc.  They  are  porous,  and  for  that  reason 
generally  dry. 

The  heavier  soils  require  more  skill  and  caution  in 
their  cultivation,  but  are  not  so  easily  exhausted  as 
the  others;  they  are  particularly  adapted  to  growing 
wheat,  oats,  indian  corn,  etc.  Very  heavy  soils  are 
exceedingly  liable  to  wetness,  and  can  only  be  made 
dry  by  draining. 

SECTION  IV.    NUMBER  OF  INORGANIC  SUBSTANCES  IN  SOIL. 
REASONS  FOR  FERTILITY  OR  BARRENNESS. 

It  has  been  said  that  soils  are  chiefly  made  up  of 
three  substances,  lime,  sand  (silica),  and  clay  (alu- 
mina). But  besides  these,  chemical  analysis  finds 
smaller  quantities  of  some  seven  or  eight  other  bodies. 
In  the  first  column  of  the  following  table,  representing 
the  composition  of  three  different  soils,  is  to  be  seen 
the  names  of  these. 


60 


INORGANIC  SUBSTANCES  IN  SOILS. 


TABLE  FIRST. 


In  one  hundred  pounds. 


Organic  matter,    

Silica, 

Alumina,   , 

Lime,   

Magnesia, 

Oxide  of  Iron, 

Oxide  of  Manganese,  . 

Potash, 

Soda,  

Chlorine,   

Sulphuric  acid,   , 

Phosphoric  acid,    

Carbonic  acid, 

Loss  during  the  analysis 


Soil    fertile 
without 
manure. 


100-0 


Fertile 
with 

manure. 


5' 

83' 

5' 

1' 


100-0 


Very- 
barren. 


4-0 

77-8 

9-1 

•4 

•1 

8-1 

•1 


100-0 


It  will  at  once  be  noticed,  that  these  are  the  very 
substances  which  were  named  and  described  when  we 
were  upon  the  inorganic  part,  or  ash,  of  plants.  To 
this  coincidence  I  shall  return  in  the  next  chapter. 

At  the  head  of  the  first  column  is  named  organic 
matter;  this  has  already  been  disposed  of.  The  other 
substances  making  up  the  inorganic  part,  follow  in 
different  proportions,  the  silica  being  largest.  It  will 
be  seen  that  these  three  soils  are  different  in  their 
qualities,  one  being  fertile  without  manure,  another 
fertile  with  the  addition  of  manure,  and  last  quite 
barren.  Every  one  at  all  conversant  with  agriculture, 
knows  that  these  differences  in  soils  actually  exist. 
We  find  occasionally,  though  not  often,  tracts  of  large 
extent,  where  the  most  exhausting  crops  may  be 
grown  for  many  years  in  succession  without  the  aid 
of  manure,  their  power  of  production  not  seeming  to 
decrease  even  under  such  severe  cultivation.     Now 


REASONS  OF  FERTILITY.  61 

wherever  we  discover  such  soils,  whether  in  our  own 
western  states,  whether  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  or 
Ganges,  in  whatever  part  of  the  world  they  may  be 
located,  a  chemical  examination  will  invariably  show 
the  presence  of  all  the  substances  above  named.  It 
is  not  necessary  that  they  should  be  in  precisely  the 
quantities  named  here,  but  they  must  all  be  present. 
The  proportions  of  some  of  these  may  seem  so  small 
as  to  be  unimportant;  that  they  are  not,  will  ap- 
pear when  we  consider  how  many  hundred  pounds 
there  are  in  an  acre  of  soil  twelve  inches  deep.  The 
smallest  of  the  above  proportions  would,  for  an  acre, 
amount  to  several  tons.  It  would  require  an  im- 
mensely heavy  manuring  to  add  one  half  of  a  per 
cent  of  any  particular  ingredient  to  the  soil. 

Unfortunately  soils  of  the  first  class  are  not  so 
plenty  as  those  of  the  second,  which  bear  good  crops 
if  an  abundance  of  manure  is  added.  Such  are  our 
ordinary  soils  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  will  be 
seen  that  in  the  column  representing  the  composition 
of  this  soil,  there  are  blanks  opposite  to  the  potash, 
soda,  and  chlorine,  denoting  that  these  are  absent. 
Several  others,  sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acids,  and 
lime,  are  in  much  smaller  quantities  than  in  the  first 
column. 

In  the  third  column,  we  find  just  half  of  the  inor- 
ganic bodies  present  in  the  first  entirely  wanting,  and 
two  others,  lime  and  magnesia,  greatly  reduced  in 
their  proportion.  Any  ordinary  application  of  manure 
would  not  supply  enough  to  make  up  all  of  these 
deficiencies;  and  except  in  places  where  produce  was 
high  -and  manures  cheap,  as  in  the  neighborhood  of 
large  cities,  such  land  could  scarcely  be  cultivated 
with  profit.  We  can  tell  just  what  is  wanting  by 
inspection  of  the  above  table;  but  few  farmers  could 
afford  to  do  everything  required  for  the  improvement 
of  such  a  soil  at  once.  The  best  way  would  be  to 
6 


62  REASONS    OF    BARRENNESS. 

bring  it  up  by  ploughing  in  green  crops,  and  thus 
gradually  with  a  moderate  use  of  manure  in  addition, 
form  a  surface  soil.  This  would,  however,  be  a  work 
calling  for  the  exercise  of  much  patience,  perseverance, 
and  good  judgment. 

The  foregoing  table  shows  clearly  enough,  the 
differences  in  soils  which  cause  what  we  call  fertility 
or  barrenness.  The  explanation  is  perfectly  simple, 
and  perfectly  satisfactory,  showing  as  it  does  that  all 
depends  upon  the  presence  or  absence  of  certain  sub- 
stances. This  is  the  general  solution,  but  there  are 
occasionally  cases  which  form  exceptions.  There  are 
soils  which  remain  barren,  even  although  they  contain 
all  of  the  substances  named  above,  and  though  much 
manure  is  added.  This  is  because  their  physical 
structure  and  condition  is  wrong,  or  because  some 
substances  are  present  in  hurtful  excess,  a.  If  the 
quantities  of  magnesia,  iron,  or  manganese,  be  very 
great,  the  soil  containing  them  is  found  to  be  un- 
propitious  to  vegetation,  often  positively  injurious. 
b.  There  are  two  oxides  of  iron  occasionally  found 
in  the  earth.  One  is  the  peroxide,  or  common  iron 
rust;  this  does  not  seem  to  be  hurtful,  but  always 
beneficial  to  vegetation.  The  other  is  called  the 
protoxide  of  iron;  it  contains  less  oxygen  than  the 
peroxide,  it  is  also  more  soluble,  and  is  where  it 
exists  in  considerable  quantity,  fatal  to  most  plants 
and  trees. 

A  barren  soil,  then,  is  barren  because  some  sub- 
stances are  too  largely  present,  or  because  certain  sub- 
stances are  wanting.  Chemistry  is  quite  competent 
to  point  out  the  difficulty  in  either  case,  and  also  to 
say  what  would  be  the  remedy.  We  can  tell  what  is 
necessary  to  fertilize  the  most  hopeless  desert,  but  at 
the  same  time  may  not  be  able  to  conduct  the  opera- 
tion so  as  to  make  it  profitable.  It  becomes  no  longer 
a  question  of  knowledge,  it  is  one  of  expense.     We 


REASONS    OF    BARRENNESS.  63 

know  what  to  do,  but  may  not  in  all  cases  be  able  to 
do  it  with  a  profit,  and  this  with  a  practical  man  is 
always  an  important  distinction. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  table  first,  that  alumina,  a 
substance  rarely,  if  ever,  present  in  the  ash  of  plants, 
is  quite  an  abundant  constituent  of  soils.  This  is  one 
distinction  between  the  inorganic  part  of  plants  and 
that  of  the  soil,  alumina  being  a  characteristic  of  the 
one  and  absent  from  the  other.  In  nearly  all  soils,  silica 
is  the  leading  substance,  usually  constituting  fully 
two-thirds  of  their  whole  weight,  and  often  eighty  or 
ninety  pounds  in  every  hundred.  The  only  cases  in 
which  it  is  not  largely  present  are  those  of  the  peat 
bogs,  made  up  almost  entirely  of  vegetable  matter. 
Silica  forms  compounds  with  certain  of  the  other 
bodies  in  the  soil,  making  what  are  called  soluble 
silicates.  The  gradual  formation  of  these  compounds 
affords  a  supply  for  the  plant 

We  have  now  mentioned  the  substances  which  are 
present  in  the  soil,  and  have  in  a  previous  chapter 
dwelt  upon  those  which  constitute  the  plant.  Sundry 
points  of  connection  between  the  two,  will  already 
have  suggested  themselves  to  the  reader  or  student. 
To  these  we  must  next  turn  our  attention,  in  treating 
of  the  various  methods  proper  to  be  employed  in 
bringing  soils  to  a  state  of  fertility,  and  to  a  condition 
the  most  easy  and  profitable  for  cultivation. 

From  examining  table  first,  and  from  the  explana- 
tions already  given,  it  will  be  perceived  that  there 
are  various  points  to  be  considered  in  attempting  the 
improvement  of  a  soil.  a.  If  there  be  a  chemical 
deficiency,  that  is  an  absence  of  certain  constituents 
necessary  to  fertility,  as  mentioned  above,  then  but 
one  course  can  be  adopted  with  any  hope  of  success: 
this  course  is  obviously  to  supply  what  is  wanting. 
The  ways  of  doing  this  in  the  most  advantageous  and 
economical  manner,  will  be  considered  under  what 


64  IMPROVEMENT    OF    SOILS. 

may  be  called  chemical  improvements,  or  the  use  of 
manures,  b.  If  there  be  a  physical  defect,  if  the 
land  is  too  wet,  too  light,  too  stiff,  or  if  from  either 
of  these  causes  it  abounds  in  noxious  compounds,  the 
remedies  come  more  properly  under  what  may  be 
called  mechanical  improvements.  This  branch  of  the 
subject  will  first  attract  our  attention,  and  will  be 
considered  in  the  following  chapter. 


65 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  SOIL  (CONTINUED),  AND  SOME  OF  ITS  CON- 
NECTIONS WITH  THE  PLANT. 

Nature  of  mechanical  improvement  :  mixing  of  sands  and  clays. 
Evils  of  wetness  in  the  soil.  Beneficial  effects  of  drains;  what 
kind  of  drains  best;  proper  depth;  materials  of  which  they 
should  be  made;  the  different  varieties  of  tiles;  subsoil  plough- 
ing; trench  ploughing.  Connection  between  inorganic  part  of 
the  soil  and  of  the  plant  illustrated.  Plants  seem  to  require 
all  of  the  inorganic  substances  in  the  soil,  but  not  in  the  same 
proportions. 

SECTION   I.    WHAT  THE  CONDITION  OF  THE  SOIL  SHOULD  BE, 
AND  THE  NATURE  OF  MECHANICAL  IMPROVEMENT. 

We  are  now  able  to  say  that  a  fertile  soil  should 
have  all  of  the  substances  which  were  mentioned  in 
Table  L,  and  were  also  named  when  giving  the  com- 
position of  the  plant.  These  substances  should  be  pre- 
sent in  abundance,  and  yet  none  of  them  in  too  large 
quantity;  they  should  be  in  forms  best  adapted  to  the 
nourishment  of  plants,  and  the  physical  character  of  the 
soil  should  be  such  that  the  plants  could  easily  penetrate 
in  every  direction  with  their  roots  to  obtain  them.  Air 
and  warmth  should  also  pervade  every  part,  because 
under  their  influence  the  plant  flourishes  better,  and 
the  necessary  changes  in  the  composition  of  the  soil 
take  place  more  readily.  To  bring  about  these  con- 
ditions is  a  study  for  the  farmer,  and  the  latter  of  them 
come  appropriately  under  our  present  head. 

By  mechanical  improvement  of  the  soil,  I  mean  the 
improvement  of  its  texture,  and  of  its  other  qualities, 

6* 


66  MECHANICAL  IMPROVEMEMENT  OF  THE  SOIL. 

by  means  not  connected  immediately  with  alteration 
of  its  chemical  composition.  They  bring  on  chemical 
changes,  it  is  true,  but  still  the  operations  themselves 
are  purely  mechanical.  Some  soils,  for  instance,  are 
too  light,  and  others  too  stiff  and  heavy.  There  are 
various  ways  of  removing  these  defects. 

a.  In  situations  where  clay  can  be  obtained,  it  is 
found  to  be  the  most  valuable  possible  application  for 
light  soils;  it  consolidates  them,  causes  them  to  retain 
water  and  manure,  and  for  the  objects  of  permanent 
improvement  is  worth  more,  load  for  load,  than  manure. 

b.  Upon  very  heavy  clay  lands,  on  the  contrary, 
sand  is  laid  in  large  quantities  with  equal  success. 
Here  the  effect  is  the  reverse  of  that  desired  on  light 
sands.  The  clay  is  mellowed,  made  less  retentive, 
dries  sooner  in  spring,  and  does  not  bake  so  hard  in 
summer.  Such  operations  as  these,  in  favorable  si- 
tuations, are  very  profitable;  and  although  expensive 
at  first,  are  in  the  end  far  cheaper  than  manuring  in 
the  ordinary  way. 

m 

SECTION  H.    THE    EFFECTS  OF    TOO  MUCH  MOISTURE  IN  THE 
SOIL. 

I  come  now  to  mention  a  defect  in  soils  which  is  of 
very  great  importance,  and  which  has  not  as  yet  been 
fully  appreciated  in  this  country.  This  is  the  presence 
of  too  much  moisture.  Wherever  water  is  so  abun- 
dant in  the  soil  as  to  completely  saturate  it,  various 
evil  effects  take  place. 

a.  The  necessary  decomposition  of  organic  sub- 
stances is  arrested,  and  certain  vegetable  acids  are 
formed,  called  by  chemists  humic,  ulmic,  geic  acids, 
etc.  In  swamps  and  low  grounds  generally,  these 
accumulate  to  a  large  extent,  and  form  the  deep  black 
soil  or  muck  of  such  situations. 

b.  So  long  as  these  acids  are  present  in  such  ex- 
cessive quantity,  valuable  plants  refuse  to  grow;  but, 


COLD   AND    SOUR    SOILS.  67 

as  is  well  known,  when  the  muck  is  taken  out  and 
dried,  it  becomes  a  valuable  manure  :  this  is  because 
air  and  warmth  obtain  access,  and  the  process  of 
decomposition  goes  on  again.  In  order  to  avoid  mis- 
apprehension, it  ought  here  to  be  mentioned  that  these 
acids  in  small  proportions  are  really  useful  in  the  soil, 
as  furnishing  a  portion  of  their  food  to  plants.  It  is 
the  excess  of  them  that  does  so  much  injury. 

It  is  not  only  in  swamps  that  this  injurious  formation 
occurs  :  there  is  much  land  which  is  too  wet  in  the 
early  part  of  the  season,  or  in  which  are  springs  that 
saturate  the  surface;  this  land  may  be  hard,  and  may 
even  bear  ploughing,  yet  still  it  is  what  farmers  call 
cold  and  sour.  These  are  exactly  the  proper  words, 
for  they  truly  express  its  qualities.  Considerable  and 
injurious  quantities  of  these  vegetable  acids  are 
formed;  and  the  water,  by  constant  evaporation  from 
the  surface,  produces  cold;  the  grass  is  scanty  and 
poor,  while  rushes  show  themselves  in  the  wettest 
spots.  There  are  large  tracts  of  such  land  as  this  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  country.  Farmers  think  such 
land  too  dry  for  draining,  and  yet  that  is  the  only  way 
to  make  any  permanent  improvement  upon  it.  It  is 
cold  and  late  in  spring,  apt  to  bake  hard  in  summer, 
and  to  suffer  from  early  frosts  in  autumn.  It  is  not 
in  a  fit  condition  to  support  good  crops,  and  the  only 
way  to  bring  it  into  a  good  state  is  to  dry  it. 

Some  land  is  dry  on  the  surface,  but  has  a  wet  sub- 
soil :  when  the  roots  of  the  plants  get  down  to  this, 
they  find  at  once  injurious  food,  not  only  the  acids 
already  mentioned,  but  inorganic  substances;  the  pro- 
toxide of  iron,  described  in  Chapter  V.,  is  very  apt  to 
form  in  such  places,  and  is  at  once  fatal  if  the  plant 
can  find  no  nutriment  in  other  directions.  In  this  case 
too  the  only  remedy  is  to  drain.  The  good  effects  of 
this  operation  on  all  soils  suffering  from  any  of  the 
causes  above  mentioned,  are  very  remarkable,  and 
must  briefly  be  specified  before  going  farther. 


68  BENEFICIAL    EFFECTS    OF    DRAINING. 


SECTION  m.    ON   THE    CHANGES   WHICH   RESULT   FROM 
DRAINING. 

When  the  drain  is  made  and  covered  (for  I  always 
mean  here  covered  drains),  the  water  which  falls  upon 
the  ground  does  not  remain  to  stagnate,  and  does  not 
run  away  over  the  surface  washing  off  the  best  of  the 
soil,  but  sinks  gradually  down,  yielding  to  the  roots  of 
plants  any  fertilizing  matter  which  it  may  contain, 
and  often  washing  out  some  hurtful  substances;  as  it 
descends,  air  and  consequently  warmth  follow  it. 
Under  these  new  influences  the  proper  decompositions 
and  preparation  of  compounds  fit  for  the  sustenance  of 
plants  go  on,  the  soil  is  warm  and  sufficiently  dry,  and 
plants  flourish  which  formerly  never  would  grow  on  it 
in  perfection  if  at  all.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  too,  that 
such  soils  resist  drought  better  than  ever  before.  The 
reason  is,  that  the  plants  are  able  to  send  their  roots 
much  farther  down  in  search  of  food,  without  ever 
finding  anything  hurtful.  Every  part  being  penetrated 
with  air,  and  consequently  drier  and  lighter,  these 
soils  do  not  bake  in  summer,  but  remain  mellow  and 
porous.  Such  effects  can  not,  in  their  full  extent,  be 
looked  for  in  a  stiff  clay  during  the  first  season;  the 
change  must  be  gradual,  but  it  is  sure. 


SECTION  IV.    ON    THE    CONSTRUCTION   OF    DRAINS,  AND    THE 
MATERIALS    USED. 

These  being  the  benefits  that  are  to  be  expected  from 
the  introduction  of  drains  into  swampy  and  wet  land 
of  every  description,  it  is  obviously  important  to  know 
how  they  should  be  made.  With  the  exception  perhaps 
of  large  main  channels,  to  which  all  others  converge, 
or  for  carrying  off  small  rivulets,  the  drains  should  be 
covered.  Open  drains  occupy  much  of  the  land  by  their 


PROPER    DEPTH   OF   DRAINS.  69 

bulk,  and  can  not  be  approached  very  closely  by  teams 
on  either  side;  they  thus  cause  a  farther  loss  of  land, 
beside  great  inconvenience  in  working.  Their  banks 
and  sides  are  nurseries  of  weeds,  so  that  unless  re- 
gularly cleared  out  they  are  extremely  liable  to  become 
choked,  and  thus  fail  to  do  their  work  properly.  An- 
other great  evil  is,  that  when  water  falls  upon  the  land, 
instead  of  sinking  through  to  the  subsoil,  it  runs  away 
over  the  surface;  washing  off  fertilizing  substances 
from  the  richest  part  of  the  soil,  and  carrying  them 
away. 

For  these  reasons,  covered  drains  are  always  to  be 
preferred  in  situations  where  it  is  practicable  to  make 
them.  There  are  several  points  of  much  importance 
in  the  construction  of  such  drains. 

First,  as  to  their  depth;  where  a  fall  can  be  ob- 
tained, this  should  be  from  30  to  36  inches.  The 
plants  could  then  send  their  roots  down,  and  find  to 
this  depth  a  soil  free  from  hurtful  substances.  The 
roots  of  ordinary  crops  often  go  down  three  feet,  when 
there  is  nothing  unwholesome  to  prevent  their  descent. 
The  farmer  who  has  a  soil  available  for  his  crops  to 
such  a  depth,  can  not  exhaust  it  so  soon  as  one  where 
they  have  to  depend  on  a  few  inches  or  even  a  foot  of 
surface.  Manures,  also,  can  not  easily  sink  dowrn  be- 
yond the  reach  of  plants.  On  such  a  soil,  too,  deep 
ploughing  could  be  practised,  without  fear  of  disturb- 
ing the  top  of  the  drains.  The  farmer  should  not,  by 
making  his  drains  shallow,  deprive  himself  of  the 
power  to  use  the  subsoil  plough,  or  other  improved 
implements  that  may  be  invented  for  the  purpose  of 
deepening  the  soil.  There  are  districts  in  England, 
where  drains  have  had  to  be  taken  up  and  relaid 
deeper  for  this  very  reason.  It  would  have  been  an 
actual  saving  to  have  laid  them  deep  enough  at  the 
first. 


70 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    DRAEsS. 


Second,  as  to  the  way  in  which  they  should  be 
made,  and  the  materials  to  be  used. 

a.  The  ditch  should  of  course  be  wedge-shaped  for 
convenience  of  digging,  and  should  be  smooth  on  the 
bottom. 

b.  Where  stones  are  used,  the  proper  width  is  about 
six  inches  at  the  bottom.  Small  stones  should  be 
selected,  or  large  ones  broken  to  about  the  size  of  a 
hen's  egg,  and  the  ditch  filled  in  with  these  to  a  depth 
of  nine  or  ten  inches.  The  earth  is  apt  to  fall  into 
the  cavities  among  larger  stones,  and  mice  or  rats 
make  their  burrows  there  :  in  either  case,  water  finds 
its  way  from  above,  and  washes  in  dirt  and  mud,  soon 
causing  the  drain  to  choke.  With  small  stones, 
choking  from  either  of  these  causes  can  not  take  place 
if  a  good  turf  be  laid  grass  side  down  above  the  stones, 
and  the  earth  then  trampled  in  hard.  Cypress  or  cedar 
shavings  are  sometimes  used,  but  are  not  quite  so  safe 
as  a  good  sound  turf.  The  water  should  find  its  way 
into  the  drain  from  the  sides,  and  not  from  the  top. 

The  accompanying  figure  represents  the 
arrangement  of  the  stones  :  a  is  the  turf 
on  top;  if  the  water  enters  at  the  sides 
b,  b,  it  comes  in  clear,  having  filtered 
through  the  soil,  and  depositedevery  thing 
in  the  way  of  mud  which  might  tend  to 
choke  the  drain.  Some  farmers  prefer  to 
make  stone  drains  like  fig.  4,  having  two 
flat  stones  laid  against  each  other  at  the 
bottom  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  pipe,  and 
filling  above  them  with  small  stones  as 
before.  In  very  swampy  soft  ground,  it 
is  sometimes  necessary  to  lay  a  plank  or 
slab  in  the  bottom  of*  the  drain,  before 
putting  in  the  stones.  This  is  to  prevent 
them  from  sinking,  and  making  an  un- 
even bottom,  before  the  soil  becomes  dry 
enough  to  be  firm. 


Fig.  3. 


TILE    DKAINS   PREFERRED.  71 

Stones  broken  to  the  size  above  mentioned  are 
expensive  in  this  country,  and  in  many  places  they 
can  not  be  procured;  in  England  it  is  now  found  that 
tiles  made  of  clay  and  burned,  are  cheapest.  These 
have  been  made  of  various  shapes. 

Fi    5  a.  The  first  used  was  the  horse- 

shoe tile,  fig.  5.  This  was  so 
named  from  its  shape:  it  had  a 
sole  a,  made  as  a  separate  piece 
to  place  under  it,  and  form  a  smooth  surface  for  the 
water  to  run  over. 

b.  Within  a  few  years  this  tile  has  been  almost  en- 
tirely superseded  by  the  pipe  tiles;  these  are  made  of 
several  shapes,  as  seen  in  the  accompanying  figures  6 


Fig.  7. 


and  7:  the  oval  shape  (fig.  7)  is  advantageous,  because 
a  small  stream  in  the  bottom  will  wash  out  every  ob- 
struction that  can  be  carried  away  by  water.  These 
tiles  have  a  great  advantage  over  the  horseshoe  shape, 
in  that  they  are  smaller  and  are  all  in  one  piece;  this 
makes  them  cheaper  in  the  first  cost,  and  also  more 
economical  in  the  transportation. 

All  these  varieties  are  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  it  having  been  previously  made  quite  smooth 
and  straight.  They  are  simply  placed  end  to  end,  as 
at  a,  a,  in  figures  6  and  7;  then  wedged  a  little  with 
small  stbnes  if  necessary,  and  the  earth  packed  hard 
over  them.  Water  will  always  find  its  way  in  through 
the  joints.  Such  pipes  laid  at  a  depth  of  2|  to  3  feet, 
and  at  proper  distances  between  the  drains,  will  in 
time  dry  the  stiffest  clays.  Many  farmers  have  thought 
that  water  would  not  find  its  way  in,  but  experience 
will  soon  show  them  that  they  can  not  keep  it  out- 


72 


PIPE    TILES. 


The  portion  of  earth  next  the  drain  first  dries;  as  it 
shrinks  on  drying,  little  cracks  begin  to  radiate  in 
every  direction,  and  to  spread  until  at  last  they  have 
penetrated  through  the  whole  mass  of  soil  that  is 
within  the  influence  of  the  drain,  making  it  all,  after 
a  season  or  two,  light,  mellow,  and  wholesome  for 
plants. 

The  appearance  of  tile  drains  in  the  earth  is  shown 
by  fig.  8,  representing  a  cross 
section.  They  form  a  connected 
tube  through  which  water  runs 
with  great  freedom,  even  if  the 
fall  is  very  slight.  When  care- 
fully laid,  they  will  discharge 
water  where  the  fall  is  not  more 
than  two  or  three  inches  per 
mile.  If  buried  at  a  good  depth, 
they  can  scarcely  be  broken  ; 
and  if  well  baked,  are  not  liable  to  moulder  away. 
There  seems  no  reason  why  well  made  drains  of  this 
kind  should  not  last  for  a  century.  The  pipe  tiles  are 
used  of  from  1  to  1|  inches  diameter  of  bore  for  the 
smaller  drains,  and  for  the  larger  up  as  high  as  4  or  5 
inches.  They  are  all  made  in  pieces  of  from  12  to  14 
inches  in  length.  An  inch  pipe  will  discharge  an 
immense  quantity  of  water,  and  is  quite  sufficient  for 
most  situations.  These  small  drains  should  not  or- 
dinarily be  carried  more  than  4  or  500  feet  before  they 
pass  into  a  larger  one,  running  across  their 
ends.  Where  a  very  great  quantity  of  water 
is  to  be  discharged,  two  large-sized  horse- 
shoe tiles  are  often  employed,  one  inverted 
against  the  other  as  in  fig.  9. 
Third,  as  to  the  direction  in  which  the  drains  should 
run.  The  old  fashion  was  to  carry  them  around  the 
slopes,  so  as  to  cut  off  the  springs;  but  it  is  now  found 
most  efficacious  to  run  them  straight  doion,  at  regular 


DIRECTION  IN  WHICH  DRAINS  SHOULD  RUN.  73 

distances  apart,  according  to  the  abundance  of  water 
and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  From  20  to  50  feet  be- 
tween them,  would  probably  be  the  limits  for  most 
cases.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  a  little  cross 
drain,  to  carry  away  the  water  from  some  strong  spring. 
In  all  ordinary  cases,  the  drains  running  straight  down, 
and  discharging  into  a  main  cross  drain  at  the  foot, 
are  amply  sufficient. 

Tile  machines  are  now  introduced  into  this  country, 
and  tiles  will  soon  come  into  extensive  use.  Their  easy 
portability,  their  permanency  when  laid  clown,  and  the 
perfection  of  their  work,  will  recommend  them  for 
general  adoption.  It  is  also  to  be  noticed  that  it  takes 
less  time  to  lay  them  than  stones,  and  that  the  ditch 
required  for  their  reception  is  smaller  and  narrower. 
The  bottom  of  it  need  only  be  wide  enough  to  receive 
the  tiles.  The  upper  part  of  the  earth  is  taken  out 
with  a  common  spade,  and  the  lower  part  with  one 
made  quite  narrow  for  the  purpose,  being  only  about 
four  inches  wide  at  the  point.  The  bottom  is  finished 
clean  and  smooth,  with  a  peculiar  hoe  or  scoop  (fig.  10). 
Fio.  10  This  is  necessary, 

n  P  — '  =-. -  because  the    tiles 

must  be  laid  on 
an  even  smooth 
foundation. 


SECTION  V.    ON  SUBSOIL  AND  TRENCH  PLOUGHING. 

In  connection  with  draining,  must  be  noticed  an- 
other mode  of  mechanical  improvement;  this  is  subsoil 
ploughing.  The  subsoil  plough  is  an  implement 
contrived  to  stir  up  and  loosen  the  lower  soil,  without 
bringing  it  to  the  surface.  It  follows  the  furrow  of  an 
ordinary  plough,  and  goes  down  as  deep  as  it  can  be 
forced,  in  some  cases  from  20  to  22  inches.  The  sub- 
7 


74  SUBSOIL    AND   TRENCH   PLOUGHING. 

soil  is  thus  broken  and  mellowed,  air  finds  entrance, 
injurious  substances  are  washed  down  lower,  or,  if 
there  are  drains,  carried  away,  and  the  whole  soil  to 
a  greatly  increased  depth  is  fitted  for  the  sustenance  of 
plants.  It  should  be  repeated  once  in  five  or  six  years. 
It  is  difficult  to  go  down  more  than  a  few  inches  below 
the  old  furrow  at  the  first  subsoiling;  at  the  second, 
one  or  two  more  can  be  gained,  and  so  on  till  the 
greatest  possible  depth  is  attained.  In  some  parts  of 
England  they  dig  over  the  whole  soil  as  deep  as  two 
feet,  but  that  is  too  expensive  an  operation  for  most 
parts  of  this  country. 

Trench  ploughing  is  also  practised  in  certain  situa- 
tions. A  very  heavy  plough  is  used,  of  the  same 
shape  as  the  ordinary  plough,  but  much  heavier;  this 
brings  the  lower  soil  to  the  surface.  Such  an  opera- 
tion is  only  to  be  advised  when  the  subsoil  is  of  good 
quality,  as  otherwise  the  poor  earth  would  be  left  on 
the  top,  and  the  richer  surface  soil  buried  deep  beneath 
it. 

SECTION  VI.    ON    THE    RELATIONS    BETWEEN    THE    SOIL  AND 
THE    PLANT. 

We  now  come  to  a  new  department  of  our  subject, 
in  considering  the  connection  which  exists  between  the 
soil  and  the  plant.  The  attentive  reader  will  already 
have  perceived  that  the  inorganic  substances  in  both, 
show  a  certain  marked  coincidence.  The  source  of 
the  organic  part  in  plants  has  been  shown  in  a  pre- 
ceding chapter  to  be  partly  the  soil  and  partly  the  air. 
The  inorganic  substances  can  of  course  only  come  from 
the  soil,  and  thus  it  is  at  once  easy  to  perceive  why 
the  differences  indicated  by  Table  I.  constitute  fertility 
or  barrenness.  It  is  because  the  plant  needs  these 
substances,  that  their  absence  is  so  destructive  to  the 
value  of  a  soil. 


RELATIONS  BETWEEN  THE  SOIL  AND  THE  PLANT.       75 

They  all  enter  through  the  roots,  having  always 
been  previously  dissolved  in  water.  If  they  were, 
received  in  fine  solid  particles,  the  ash  of  any  particu- 
lar plant  would  be  different  according  to  the  differences 
in  various  soils;  but  this  is  not  found  to  be  the  case, 
as  each  plant  has  a  peculiar  ash  of  its  own. 

a.  Experiments  have  been  made  by  preparing  six 
different  plots  of  ground  in  the  same  manner,  and  then 
mixing  with  one  alumina,  with  another  lime,  with 
another  soda,  with  another  magnesia,  and  so  on;  all 
of  these  substances  being  reduced  to  a  very  fine  pow- 
der. The  result  was  that  the  ash  in  the  same  plants 
grown  on  all  of  these  plots,  was  nearly  identical  in 
composition;  thus  showing  that  they  did  not  take  in 
every  thing  in  the  shape  of  fine  particles  that  came  in 
contact  with  their  roots,  but  received  their  food  in 
solution,  and  even  then  only  such  as  suited  their 
particular  wants. 

It  may  be  best  here  to  explain  that  a  substance 
spoken  of  as  in  solution  is  dissolved,  according  to  the 
common  acceptance  of  the  word,  just  as  sugar  or  salt 
is  dissolved  in  water. 

The  fertile  soil  then  must  contain  all  of  these  in- 
organic substances,  because  plants  will  not  flourish 
without  them.  a.  Alumina  does  not  enter  into  plants 
to  any  appreciable  extent,  but  is  necessary  to  them  for 
reasons  which  have  been  mentioned  when  referring 
to  the  stiffness  and  physical  structure  of  the  soil. 
b.  Manganese  can  not  be  considered  indispensable  to 
the  ordinary  crops,  but  there  are  some  classes  of  trees 
which  appear  to  require  it  in  considerable  quantities. 
The  others  on  the  list  are  found  in  all  cultivated  crops. 
The  following  table  gives  instances  in  three  common 
ones  :  the  analyses  were  made  in  Germany. 


76 


ANALY: 


OF  THI  I  LANTS. 


TABLE    II. 


In  100  lbs  of  ash. 

Silica. 

Iron, 

Lime,    

Magnesia, 

Phosphoric  acid, 

Sulphuric  acid 

Potash 

Soda,  .' 

Chloride  of  sodium, 


Field 
Beans. 


"Wheat. 


0-56 
0-68 
2  96 

- 

2-63 
27-12 
17-43 

1-SS 


1-4S 

0-34 

5-38 

7-35 

35-33 

2-2S 

21-71 

2107 

3  32 


1-92 

0-53 

302 

13-58 

45-44 

24-18 
10-34 


99-35        98-26   i     99-11 


There  is  a  little  loss  in  each  analysis,  as  is  almost 
invariably  the  case  in  practice. 

a.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  table,  that  with  the 
exception  of  the  two  substances  above  mentioned, 
alumina  and  manganese,  all  of  the  others  named  in 
Table  I.  are  also  present  here.  In  subsequent  tables, 
I  shall  have  occasion  to  present  the  composition  of  ash 
from  other  crops,  and  it  will  be  found  that  in  these  also 
they  are.  as  a  general  rule,  all  mentioned. 

b.  Other  facts  are  indicated  by  this  table,  which  are 
of  much  importance  :  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  ash 
of  these  seeds  varies  considerably  in  composition.  In 
beans  and  peas,  for  instance,  the  quantity  of  potash 
and  soda  is  much  greater  than  in  wheat,  while  on  the 
other  hand  wheat  contains  most  phosphoric  acid:  these 
points  will  be  alluded  to  again. 

Some  of  the  substances  named  in  the  table,  as  lime 
and  magnesia,  are  in  small  quantity.  Suppose  60 
bushels  of  beans  to  the  acre,  a  very  large  crop, 
weighing  60  lbs.  per  bushel,  and  making  a  total  weight 
of  3600 "lbs.  Each  100  lbs.  would  yield  about  2  lbs. 
of  ash;  at  that  rate,  the  amount  of  ash  taken  from  an 
acre  would  be  72  lbs,     Of  this  only  about  9  lbs.,  ac- 


CONCLUSIONS  DEDUCED  FROM  TABLE  II.       77 

cording  to  the  above  table,  would  be  lime  and  mag- 
nesia; about  35  lbs.  would  be  potash  and  soda.  The 
whole  quantity  72  lbs.  seems  small  when  taken  from 
an  acre,  and  either  of  the  above  portions  of  it  appear 
almost  unworthy  of  notice;  yet  it  is  found  by  expe- 
rience, that  if  the  crops  are  unable  to  obtain  these 
small  and  comparatively  seeming  unimportant  parts 
of  their  whole  bulk  from  the  soil,  they  absolutely  re- 
fuse to  flourish.  The  farmer  may  furnish  other  manures 
as  abundantly  as  he  pleases,  but  if  they  do  not  in  some 
form  or  other  contain  these  missing  ingredients,  the 
plant  can  not  be  forced  to  grow  thriftily  or  yield 
abundantly.  The  appearance  of  his  field  will  say  as 
plainly  as  words  could  express  it,  that  something  is 
needed  which  he  has  not  given.  How  many  crops 
thus  demanding  food  from  their  owners,  do  we  see  in 
almost  every  neighborhood !  Should  not  the  farmer  of 
whom  such  a  demand  is  made,  exert  himself  to  supply 
what  is  wanted;  and  if  he  does  not  already  know,  to 
gain  the  necessary  knowledge? 

Several  points  are  established  by  such  a  table  as  the 
foregoing,  and  these  may  with  advantage  be  briefly 
recapitulated 

1.  Our  cultivated  plants  require  that  all  of  the  in- 
organic substances  present  in  Table  I.  shall  exist  in  the 
soil. 

2.  They  do  not  require  them  in  the  same  proportion, 
the  different  plants  differing  in  the  composition  of 
their  ash. 

3.  This  composition  of  the  ash  is  not  accidental,  but 
each  plant  has  a  distinct  character  of  its  own. 

4.  It  is  thus  rendered  obvious  that  land  which  would 
grow  one  crop  well,  might  not  be  able  to  grow  an- 
other having  a  different  composition.  A  crop  requiring 
little  potash,  for  instance,  might  flourish  luxuriantly 
where  one  requiring  much  of  this  substance  would  fail. 
To  the  principle  thus  indicated,  we  propose  to  return 
in  the  next  chapter.  7* 


78 


CHAPTER  VII. 

EFFECT  OF  CROPPING  UPON  THE  SOIL.    ROTATION 
OF  CROPS. 

Effects  of  cultivation.  Composition  of  ash  from  the  common 
crops.  Differences  in  the  ash  from  various  parts  of  the  same 
plant.  Differences  in  ash  of  different  crops.  How  particular 
classes  of  substances  may  be  exhausted,  and  special  manures  be 
useful  illustration  in  the  use  of  lime.  Bearing  of  these  facts 
upon  theories  of  rotation  in  cropping.  Necessity  of  rotations, 
and  care  to  be  exercised  in  their  management. 

SECTION  I.  ON  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH  FROM  OUR 
COMMON  CROPS. 

We  are  now  able  to  understand  the  effect  of  constant 
cultivation  upon  the  soil.  This  might  indeed,  to  a 
certain  extent,  be  gathered  from  what  has  already  been 
said  in  the  two  preceding  chapters;  it  is  necessary, 
however,  that  the  sketch  of  such  an  important  part  of 
the  subject  should  be  made  perfectly  clear  and  precise. 
The  student  will  by  this  time  know,  that  as  the  in- 
organic part  in  the  seed  of  the  plant  consists  mostly 
of  those  constituents  which  were  shown  by  Table  I.  to 
be  least  abundant  in  the  soil,  the  constant  selling  off 
of  grain  must  in  time  very  materially  decrease  the 
stock  of  such  substances,  unless  the  supply  is  kept  up 
by  the  addition  of  manures.  If  the  soil  was  very  rich 
at  the  commencement,  exhaustion  might  be  quite  slow; 
but  if  the  stock  of  fertility  was  small,  it  would  soon 
reach  the  utterly  exhausted  and  worn  out  condition  in 
which  we  see  so  many  of  our  farms.  This  and  other 
points  will  be  made  more  clear  by  a  table  giving  the 
composition  of  our  most  common  cultivated  crops. 


COMPOSITION  OF  CULTIVATED  CROPS. 


79 


TABLE    III. 


Carbonic  acid,  •  • 
Sulphuric  acid,  •  ■ 
Phosphoric  acid,  . 

Chlorine, 

Lime,    

Magnesia,    

Potash, 

Soda,    

Silica,  

Iron.  ••• 

Charcoal  in  ash, ) 
and  loss,    ■  •  J 


Indian 

Wheat. 

Wheat 

Rye. 

Corn. 

Straw. 

trace. 

0 

5 

1-0 

10 

15 

49 

•2 

470 

31 

47-3 

0 

3 

trace. 

06 

.... 

0 

1 

2  9 

8-5 

2-9 

17 

5 

15-9 

5'0 

10-1 

23 

2 

295 

72 

328 

3 

8 

trace. 

0-3 

4-4 

0 

8 

13 

676 

02 

0 

1 

trace. 

10 

o-s 

4 

5 

24 

5-7 

100 

0 

100-0 

100  0 

100  0 

105 

43  8 

03 

4-9 

9-9 

>27-2 

2-7 
0'4 

03 


Potatos.    Turnips 


10-4 
7-1 
11-3 

27 
1-8 
5'4 
515 
trace. 
86 
05 

07 


Hay. 


27 
60 
26 


These  do  not  represent  the  exact  composition  of  the 
ash  from  the  above  crops,  in  all  cases,  but  should  be 
considered  only  approximations.  In  different  situa- 
tions, there  is  frequently  a  considerable  variation  in 
composition;  this  does  not,  however,  affect  the  general 
character,  where  the  soil  contains  a  full  supply  of 
necessary  substances.  The  ash  from  healthy  potatoes, 
for  instance,  never  resembles  that  from  a  flourishing 
crop  of  wheat.  The  table  then  may  be  regarded  as 
approaching  sufficiently  near  the  truth  for  all  practical 
purposes. 


SECTION  II.    ON  THE  SEPARATION  OF    PLANTS  INTO  CLASSES, 
ACCORDING   TO  THE  COMPOSITION  OF    THEIR  ASH. 

I  have  inserted  in  comparison  with  the  grain  of 
wheat,  an  analysis  of  ash  from  the  straw  also,  as  an 
illustration  of  the  difference  in  the  substances  which 
they  respectively  draw  from  the  soil. 

a.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  ash  from  the  grain, 
phosphoric  acid  is  the  chief  ingredient,  making  up 
nearly  half :  potash  also  is  in  large  quantity,  being 


80  CLASSIFICATION   OF   PLANTS, 

about  one-third.  In  the  straw  ash  there  is  but  3  per 
cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  only  10  per  cent  of  pot- 
ash; magnesia  is  also  much  less. 

b.  In  the  grain  there  is  not  quite  1^  per  cent  of 
silica,  but  in  the  straw  there  is  nearly  70  per  cent. 
Silica,  then,  is  the  leading  ingredient  in  the  ash  of  the 
straw,  phosphoric  acid  in  that  of  the  grain.  It  is 
silica  which  gives  the  straw  its  stiffness,  strength,  and 
elasticity;  when  there  is  not  a  sufficient  supply  of  it, 
the  straw  can  not  uphold  the  weight  of  the  grain,  and 
falls  down  or  lodges,  as  the  farmers  say. 

c.  The  reason  why  nearly  all  of  the  phosphoric 
acid  is  found  in  the  grain,  will  be  apparent  as  we 
proceed  to  another  part  of  this  treatise.  This  acid  is 
shown  by  the  table  to  be  more  abundant  than  anything 
else  in  the  ash  of  rye  and  oats:  the  same  thing  is  true 
of  barley  and  buckwheat.  In  the  straw  of  all  these, 
there  is  also  a  preponderance  of  silica.  In  the  grain 
of  indian  corn,  phosphoric  acid  is  very  abundant,  but 
there  is  not  so  much  silica  in  the  stalk  as  in  the  straw 
of  grain. 

The  ash  from  all  of  these  grains  differs  from  the 
ash  of  potatoes  and  turnips  in  one  essential  particular: 
in  the  two  last,  phosphoric  acid  is  comparatively  a 
small  quantity,  being  only  about  one-tenth;  here,  on 
the  contrary,  we  find  that  potash  is  the  most  abundant 
substance  of  all,  particularly  in  potatoes,  where  it  is  a 
little  more  than  half  of  the  whole.  In  the  ash  of  both 
potato  and  turnip  tops,  lime  also  abounds,  and  often 
phosphoric  acid.  Potash  and  soda  too  are  here  among 
the  most  prominent  ingredients. 

If  now  we  look  at  the  ash  of  meadow  hay,  we 
perceive  that  there  is  still  another  difference  :  potash 
and  soda  together  are  about  20  per  cent,  phosphoric 
acid  is  but  6  per  cent,  while  lime  is  more  abundant 
than  anything  else  with  the  exception  of  silica,  which 
last  is  required  to  give  strength  to  the  stalk  as  in  the 
straw. 


ACCORDING  TO  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  THEIR  ASH.       81 

We  thus  find  that  there  are  three  great  leading 
classes  of  ash  established  :  1.  The  grains,  where 
phosphoric  acid  predominates;  2.  The  roots,  where 
potash  and  soda  abound;  3.  The  grasses,  where  lime 
becomes  quite  important.  4.  The  various  kinds  of 
straw  may  perhaps  be  said  to  constitute  a  fourth  class, 
where  silica  is  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
weight.  5.  It  may  be  well  also  to  mention  a  fifth 
class  in  trees,  the  ash  from  the  wood  of  which  contains, 
in  very  numerous  cases,  more  of  lime  than  of  any  other 
substance.  There  are  particularly  large  quantities  in 
the  apple  and  other  fruit  trees. 

SECTION  III.  ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  CROPPING  UPON  THE  SOIL, 
IN  CONNECTION  WITH  SPECIAL  MANURING. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  we  are  now  better  prepared 
to  consider  the  effect  that  cropping  has  upon  the  soil. 
Suppose  in  the  first  place  that,  as  is  too  often  the  case, 
wheat  or  any  other  grain  has  been  grown  upon  a  new 
soil  crop  after  crop,  and  nothing  returned  in  the  shape 
of  manure;  the  yield  may  be  good  for  a  number  of 
years,  but  then  it  begins  to  grow  less  and  less  :  what 
is  the  reason  of  this?  It  is,  probably,  that  the  phos- 
phates  are  nearly  exhausted;  these  were  not  so  abun- 
dant as  many  other  substances  at  the  commencement 
(see  Table  I.),  but  more  of  them  than  of  anything  else 
has  been  taken  away.  Second,  suppose  that  the  farmer 
has  sold  all  of  his  grain,  but  has  been  very  careful  to 
return  the  straw  as  manure  :  he  does  not  see  why  the 
land  should  run  down,  and  in  fact  it  does  not  so  quick- 
ly now  as  in  the  first  case;  still,  after  a  time,  it  also 
begins  to  show  marks  of  exhaustion.  Table  III.  ex- 
plains this  at  once  :  in  the  straw,  he  has  returned 
chiefly  silica  to  the  soil;  it  is,  however,  chiefly  phos- 
phoric acid  that  the  grain  has  taken  away,  and  that 
he  has  been  selling  off. 


82  EFFECTS   OF    CROPPING, 

The  same  thing  would  result  from  exclusive  cul- 
tivation of  any  of  the  other  grains.  Some  soils  bear 
this  severe  treatment  longer  than  others,  but  there  are 
very  few  that  would  not  eventually  become  exhausted. 
If  turnips  or  potatoes  alone  were  grown,  the  loss  would 
be  of  another  description,  but  equally  injurious.  In 
this  case,  instead  of  phosphoric  acid,  it  is  potash  and 
soda  that  are  exhausted,  and  no  amount  of  phosphoric 
acid  would  make  good  the  deficiency.  In  the  case  of 
trees,  the  demand  would  more  probably  be  for  lime. 

The  general  rule  may  from  all  of  these  facts  be 
considered  as  established,  that  cropping  tends  directly 
to  impoverish  the  soil.  We  see  by  Table  I.  that  silica, 
alumina,  iron,  and  organic  matter,  in  the  soils  there 
given,  amount  to  at  least  90  lbs.  of  every  100.  In 
many  soils  they  come  up  to  at  least  95  lbs.  There  is 
no  fear,  then,  of  exhausting  the  silica;  alumina,  as  has 
been  said,  does  not  enter  into  the  composition  of  plants, 
and  iron  is  not  usually  a  prominent  constituent.  The 
leading  parts  of  the  ash  from  the  grain,  the  roots,  and 
all  of  those  portions  of  plants  most  valuable  for  food, 
are  found  not  in  the  90  to  95  lbs.  made  up  by  these 
abundant  substances,  but  in  the  5  or  10  lbs.  necessary 
to  make  out  the  hundred.  The  quantities  of  these 
important  substances  contained  in  most  soils  are  there- 
fore small;  and  hence  as  they  are  the  very  ones  most 
largely  carried  away,  some  one  of  them  is  usually  first 
exhausted,  according  to  the  class  of  crops  that  have 
been  chiefly  cultivated,  as  indicated  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

When  one  is  gone,  or  reduced  to  a  very  small  quan- 
tity, the  crops  which  particularly  require  that  substance 
will  refuse  to  grow  luxuriantly  and  to  yield  well  : 
suppose  it  to  be  wheat,  and  the  wanting  substance 
phosphoric  acid;  there  maybe  the  greatest  abundance 
of  every  other  necessary  constituent,  and  yet  all  of 
their  good  effects  are  more  than  neutralized  by  this 


IN  CONNECTION  WITH  PARTICULAR  MANURES.         83 

one  defect.  By  attending  to  such  points  as  these,  the 
farmer  may  often  save  himself  much  disappointment 
and  expense.  He  may  put  on  load  after  load  of  or- 
dinary manure,  and  still  not  produce  the  desired  im- 
provement; when  at  the  same  time  a  bushel  or  two  of 
some  particular  ingredient,  at  one-twentieth  of  the 
cost,  may  have  been  all  that  the  land  wanted. 

a.  In  this  way  we  can  explain  the  wonderful  effect 
often  produced  by  a  few  bushels  of  lime,  or  of  plaster. 
These  were  just  the  substances  which  were  deficient  in 
those  soils  where  they  proved  so  efficacious;  being 
supplied,  the  soils  at  once  became  fertile.  Where  they 
produce  no  change,  as  is  the  case  in  many  situations, 
it  is  because  there  is  already  a  sufficient  supply  present; 
because  some  other  substances  beside  these  are  also 
wanting;  because  the  land  is  too  wet,  or  is  otherwise 
faulty  in  its  physical  character;  or  because  injurious 
compounds  are  so  largely  present,  as  to  be  fatal  to  the 
healthy  growth  of  plants. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  land  to  be  brought  up  at 
once  by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  plaster,  and  the 
application  repeated  yearly  afterward  seems  to  be  all 
that  is  necessary.  This  seeming  facility  of  fertilizing 
his  soil,  is  apt  to  lead  the  farmer  into  a  great  mistake. 
He  finds  that  he  can  obtain  heavy  crops  each  year  by 
using  a  few  bushels  of  plaster  or  lime,  and  is  tempted 
to  depend  almost  entirely  upon  so  easy  and  so  cheap 
a  manure,  to  the  neglect  of  all  others.  After  a  time, 
however,  his  crops  begin  to  diminish  again  :  he  tries 
increasing  the  plaster  or  the  lime,  but  with  no  renewal 
of  the  former  effect;  he  finally  resorts  to  common 
manure  again,  but  with  not  even  so  much  success  as 
he  formerly  had;  the  land  is  impoverished  beyond 
anything  he  has  ever  known.  Thus  in  some  parts  of 
England  it  has  passed  into  a  proverb, 

"  Lime  enriches  the  fathers,   but  impoverishes  the  sons;1' 


84  INSTANCE  OF  FALSE  PRACTICE. 

the  idea  being  that  the  improvement  at  first  is  re- 
markable, but  that  in  the  end  the  land  is  ruined.  Is 
the  blame  in  such  cases  to  be  laid  upon  either  the  lime 
or  the  plaster?  Let  us  reason  a  moment  upon  the  facts 
of  the  case. 

Here  was  a  soil  well  supplied  with  all  of  the  sub- 
stances mentioned  in  Table  I.,  excepting,  by  way  of 
example,  sulphuric  acid  and  lime  (plaster  of  paris). 
The  farmer  adds  plaster,  which  at  once  supplies  the 
deficiency,  and  the  land  produces  heavy  crops;  he  adds 
it  the  second  year  with  perhaps  even  increased  effect, 
and  so  on  year  after  year,  until  there  is  as  much  as  is 
necessary  in  the  soil.  Now  what  is  the  reason  that 
after  a  time  the  crops  begin  to  decrease?  There  is  an 
abundance  of  plaster,  but  may  there  not  be  a  deficiency 
of  something  else?  He  has  been  constantly  taking  off 
large  crops,  and  carrying  them  away  from  the  land, 
with  a  variety  of  inorganic  substances  contained  in 
them.  As  the  crops  have  been  larger  than  ever  before, 
so  the  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid,  chlorine,  mag- 
nesia, potash,  soda,  etc.  taken  off,  have  been  cor- 
respondingly great.  How  has  this  constant  drain  upon 
the  stock  of  these  substances  in  the  soil  been  met  ? 
Why  by  a  constant  supply  of  plaster,  that  is,  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  lime.  At  last  one  or  more  of  them 
are  exhausted;  and  how  is  the  loss  made  up  ?  Still 
by  an  increased  supply  of  plaster;  and  because  this 
plaster  no  longer  does  any  good,  it  is  said  that  the 
land  has  been  ruined  by  its  injurious  influence. 

From  the  foregoing  explanation,  we  may  easily 
perceive  that  it  is  no  longer  plaster  which  the  land 
requires,  but  perhaps  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  mag- 
nesia, or  some  of  the  other  constituents  of  a  fertile 
soil.  They  have  been  taken  away,  and  nothing 
brought  back  but  plaster;  and  now  that  they  are  ex- 
hausted, hundreds  of  tons  of  plaster  would  not  make 
good  their  loss.     It  is  then  the  false  practice  of  the 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 


85 


farmer,  and  not  the  plaster,  that  has  so  greatly  injured 
his  land.  The  rule  becomes  clear  and  imperative,  that 
every  one  who  uses  such  special  manures  to  make 
good  a  special  deficiency,  should  at  the  same  time 
keep  up  the  general  stock  by  a  liberal  use  of  ordinary 
manure. 

SECTION  IV.  ON  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ROTATION  IN  CROPPING. 

Nearly  all  of  the  foregoing  statements  in  this  chap- 
ter, and  in  the  preceding  one,  have  borne  more  or  less 
distinctly  upon  the  theories  or  facts  connected  with 
the  rotation  of  crops.  It  may  be  well  to  make  a  few 
direct  applications  of  the  knowledge  we  have  now 
gained,  with  this  particular  subject  in  view. 

All  good  farmers  know  that  the  most  exhausting 
system  that  can  be  devised,  is  to  cultivate  the  same 
crop  on  the  same  soil,  year  after  year.  When  a  longer 
or  shorter  period  has  elapsed,  as  the  land  may  have 
been  at  the  commencement  richer  or  poorer,  the  yield 
begins  to  decrease ;  an  increase  may  be  obtained  again 
by  the  free  use  of  manures,  but  the  quantity  necessary 
is  so  large,  and  requires  to  be  so  often  renewed,  that 
it  is  in  most  situations  more  profitable  to  change  the 
crops,  or  alternate  them. 

From  such  practical  observations,  have  arisen  the 
various  systems  of  rotation  that  are  in  vogue  in  dif- 
ferent districts.  Table  III.  shows  how  practical  ex- 
perience has,  in  this  case,  hit  upon  the  very  course 
which  science  would  have  recommended.  It  has  been 
shown  by  that  table,  and  attention  has  been  called  to 
the  fact,  that  there  are  several  distinct  classes  of  crops, 
when  we  consider  them  with  regard  to  the  composition 
of  their  ash.  The  classes  are  those  which  are  found 
to  bear  a  part  in  every  good  rotation,  that  is,  grain 
crops,  root  crops,  and  grass  crops,  or  the  same  three 
classes  that  were  distinguished  from  each  other  in  the 
early  part  of  this  chapter. 
8 


86 


SYSTEM  OF  ROTATION 


Suppose  the  farmer  to  have  a  soil  which  requires, 
as  almost  all  soils  do,  the  application  of  manure  to 
render  it  fertile.  He  adds  a  good  coating  of  manure, 
and  then  takes  a  crop  of  indian  corn  or  wheat :  this 
crop  will  carry  away  the  largest  part  of  the  phosphates 
that  were  added  in  the  manure ;  in  most  cases  a  second 
crop  of  the  same  kind  would  not  therefore  be  so  good, 
and  a  third  still  less.  There  yet  remains,  however, 
from  the  manure,  considerable  quantities  of  other  sub- 
stances, which  the  grain  crops  did  not  so  particularly 
require,  such  as  potash  and  soda;  with  these  a  good 
root  crop  may  be  obtained,  potatoes  or  turnips  or  beets; 
after  this  there  is  probably  still  enough  lime,  etc.  left 
to  produce  an  excellent  crop  of  hay,  if  seeded  down 
with  another  grain  crop  of  a  lighter  character  than 
indian  corn  or  wheat. 

We  perceive  then  that  any  good  system  of  rotation 
must  be  founded  upon  the  principle,  that  different 
classes  of  crops  require  different  proportions  of  the 
various  substances  that  are  present  in  soils,  and  in  the 
numerous  fertilizers  that  are  applied  for  the  purpose 
of  enriching  them.  Thus  the  crops  may  be  made  to 
succeed  each  other  with  the  least  possible  injury  to  the 
soil,  and  with  the  greatest  economy  in  the  use  of  the 
manures.  It  would  be  useless  to  recommend  here  any 
particular  system  of  rotation  as  the  best;  for  that  is  a 
matter  to  be  decided  by  experience  in  each  section  of 
country,  under  the  various  circumstances  of  climate, 
location,  and  value  of  certain  crops.  I  wish  only  to 
enforce  the  general  principle  that  rotations  are  ne- 
cessary, and  that  they  afford  the  only  means  as  yet 
discovered,  through  which  the  majority  of  farmers  can 
regularly  obtain  heavy  crops  with  profit  to  themselves; 
and  at  the  same  time  can  keep  up,  or  even  improve 
the  value  of  their  land. 

It  is  to  be  noticed,  that  even  a  good  rotation  should 
not  be  continued  too  long  unchanged  upon  the  same 


TO  BE  ASCERTAINED  BY  EXPERIENCE.  87 

land.  After  cultivating  one  grain  crop  for  a  very 
lengthened  period  in  a  rotation,  it  will  be  found  of 
advantage  to  make  an  occasional  change  to  some 
other.  The  land  appears  to  grow  tired  of  a  crop  after 
a  time,  and  to  do  better  with  another  even  of  the  same 
class.  There  are  some  districts  in  Scotland,  where 
clover  was  for  more  than  a  century  grown  once  in  five 
years,  their  rotations  in  those  districts  extending  over 
that  space  of  time;  now  they  can  only  get  it  once  in 
ten  years,  or  every  other  rotation,  and  that  not  so  good 
as  formerly  :  they  call  such  land  clover-sick.  Instances 
of  this  character  show  very  strongly  the  value  of  rota- 
tion in  cropping,  and  establish  by  facts  the  theoretical 
view  that  has  been  taken  of  the  advantages  likely  to 
result  from  such  a  system  of  cultivation.  As  we  come 
to  know  more  of  the  composition  of  our  various  crops, 
of  the  soils,  and  of  manures,  we  may  expect  to  attain 
greater  exactness  in  our  calculations  of  the  amount 
taken  off  during  any  single  year,  or  during  an  entire 
rotation. 

In  each  district,  the  farmer,  by  careful  observation 
and  study,  can  after  a  time  mark  out  the  system  of 
cropping  and  of  manuring  best  adapted  to  his  particu- 
lar soil  and  locality. 

1.  If  he  knows  the  character  of  the  rock  from  which 
his  soil  was  originally  formed,  his  task  is  comparative- 
ly easy;  for  from  the  known  composition  of  the  rock, 
he  can  come  very  near  that  of  the  soil. 

2.  If  he  has  no  knowledge  of  this  kind,  he  can  still 
hope  to  arrive  at  good  results,  by  deductions  from  the 
known  character  of  the  crops  that  have  been  chiefly 
cultivated  upon  his  farm.  He  can  tell  what  are  the 
substances  that  have  been  most  probably  exhausted  by 
these  crops,  and  experiment  accordingly  with  manures 
in  which  those  are  the  chief  constituents. 

3.  A  still  more  satisfactory  way,  would  be  to  procure 
good  analyses  of  soils  by  really  competent  persons. 


88  GOOD  ANALYSES  REQUIRED, 

By  these,  the  defect  or  defects  would  at  once  be  pointed 
out,  and  the  most  economical  remedy  indicated.  Un- 
fortunately few  are  able  to  procure  such  analyses 
readily,  and  the  majority  must  therefore  have  recourse 
to  one  of  the  two  first  methods  of  examination,  or  a 
union  of  them  both. 

I  say  "  good  analyses  by  really  competent  persons/' 
with  the  design  of  hinting  that  some  care  is  necessary 
in  this  matter.  A  poor  analysis  is  worse  than  nothing, 
as  it  not  only  involves  the  farmer  in  unsuccessful  ex- 
periments, but  in  their  failure  throws  discredit  on  the 
whole  cause  of  scientific  improvement. 

Many  persons  make  analyses  of  soils  hastily  and 
carelessly,  grudging  the  time  and  caution  necessary  to 
the  obtaining  of  a  good  result;  and  others  are  really 
deficient  in  their  knowledge  of  chemical  investiga- 
tions. In  both  cases,  mistakes  without  end  are  usually 
the  only  result. 

It  is  not  an  easy  thing  to  derive  positive  or  valuable 
information  from  imperfect  analyses;  for  they  are 
usually  most  defective  as  regards  the  substances  that 
are  present  in  the  smallest  quantities,  such  as  phos- 
phoric acid,  potash,  soda,  etc.,  the  true  proportion  of 
which,  as  has  already  been  explained,  it  is  of  great 
importance  to  know. 


89 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

OF  MANURES. 

Necessity  of  manures.  Irrigation,  its  management  and  effects. 
Classification  of  manures  :  vegetable,  animal,  and  mineral. 
Vegetable  manures  :  ploughing  in  of  green  crops,  of  straw,  of 
seaweed,  etc.;  advantage  of  these  forms  of  manure.  Animal 
manures  :  reasons  for  their  remarkable  efficiency.  Animal 
flesh,  blood,  wool,  bones. 

SECTION  I.  OF  THE  NECESSITY  FOR  MANURES  IN  MOST  SOILS. 

Having  now  considered  the  character  of  the  soil, 
and  that  of  the  crops  in  connection  with  each  other, 
we  see  that  there  is  no  hope  of  keeping  up  and  in- 
creasing the  produce  of  any  land,  unless  there  is  from 
some  source  a  supply  of  fertilizing  substances  to  re- 
store those  that  are  carried  away  by  the  crops.  Some 
soils  containing  constantly  decomposing  rocks,  or 
peculiar  springs,  or  subject  to  annual  overflows  where- 
by enriching  substances  are  deposited,  need  no  other 
foreign  supply;  but  these  are  rare  when  compared 
with  those  that  require  a  constant  and  regular  system 
of  addition,  to  render  them  properly  productive. 

To  the  various  manures  employed  for  this  purpose, 
we  shall  now  turn  our  attention.  Before  taking  them 
up  in  any  regular  classification,  I  may  properly  devote 
a  few  words  to  one  particular  method  of  enriching  the 
soil,  which  cannot  easily  be  brought  into  either  of  the 
classes.     I  refer  to  irrigation. 


90  IRRIGATION", 


SECTION    II.    OF    IRRIGATION. 

This  method  of  improvement  is  of  course  only  ap- 
plicable in  particular  situations,  such  as  where  a  head 
and  flow  of  water  can  be  obtained,  and  where  also  the 
ground  to  be  flowed  is  in  grass  or  growing  grain.  All 
water,  except  rain  water,  even  that  from  the  purest 
springs,  has  mineral  substances  and  organic  substances 
in  solution.  As  it  flows  over  the  surface  among  living 
plants,  and  in  sinking  through  the  soil  comes  in  con- 
tact there  with  their  roots,  it  yields  up  these  substances 
for  food.  Beside  such  solid  bodies,  it  contains  in 
solution  carbonic  acid  and  oxygen,  both  of  which  the 
plant  also  receives  with  avidity. 

The  surface  of  a  field  to  be  irrigated  must  of  course 
be  somewhat  sloping,  and  the  water  is  brought  on  by  a 
main  ditch  at  the  head  of  the  slope.  In  this  main  ditch, 
at  proper  distances,  are  gates  to  regulate  the  flow  of 
"water  into  smaller  ditches,  from  the  sides  and  ends  of 
which  again  run  small  cuts;  these  are  so  arranged  that 
every  part  of  the  field  shall  be  flowed  over  by  a  thin 
but  regular  sheet  of  water.  At  the  foot  of  the  slope 
is  another  ditch,  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  away 
such  of  the  water  as  may  not  sink  into  the  earth. 
Where  water  is  scarce,  and  the  slope  long,  it  is  oc- 
casionally used  several  times  in  succession.  When 
the  flow  has  been  continued  for  ten  days  or  a  fortnight 
at  a  time,  the  supply  gates  are  shut  down,  and  the  field 
allowed  to  dry.  The  operation  is  often  repeated  once 
or  twice  in  a  season. 

The  effect  of  water  in  this  case,  is  not  like  that 
alluded  to  before  in  treating  of  swamps  and  wet  land. 
Here  there  is  no  stagnation;  the  water  is  always  run- 
ning and  fresh.  Land  that  is  intended  to  be  irrigated 
should  have  a  porous  subsoil,  or,  if  not,  should  be 
underdrained;  in  either  case  the  water  sinks  away  as 
soon  as  the  flow  is  stopped,  the  soil  dries,  and  the 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    MANURES.  91 

plants  get  at  once  the  full  benefit  of  all  the  fertilizing 
matter  that  has  been  deposited. 

In  many  parts  of  this  country,  irrigated  meadows 
and  pastures  might  be  formed,  which  would  produce 
heavy  grass  for  hay  early  in  the  season,  and  then  by 
occasional  flowing  furnish  rich  and  abundant  pasture 
during  the  hot  and  dry  weather  of  summer.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  cities  and  large  towns,  it  is  sometimes 
practicable  to  irrigate  with  water  from  the  sewers  and 
drains;  this  is  one  of  the  richest  of  manures.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  a  poor  sandy  tract 
has  by  such  means  been  converted  into  a  perfect 
garden,  which  rents  at  an  enormous  sum,  and  furnishes 
successive  crops  of  grass  from  early  spring  to  late 
autumn. 

SECTION  III.    CLASSIFICATION  OF  MANURES.      OF  VEGETABLE 
MANURES. 

We  will  now  return  to  the  classification  of  manures. 
They  may  be  divided  into  three  great  classes,  vege- 
table, animal  and  mineral.  These  wre  will  consider  in 
the  order  above  given.  After  all  that  has  been  said 
as  to  its  effects,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  now  to  give 
any  elaborate  definition  as  to  the  precise  meaning  of 
the  word  manure;  anything  is  a  manure  that  gives 
food  to  plants,  either  directly  or  indirectly. 

Vegetable  manures  are  numerous  and  important; 
some  of  them  have  been  already  mentioned,  when 
treating  of  the  ploughing  in  of  green  crops.  They 
are  not  so  energetic  in  their  action  as  other  manures 
yet  to  be  noticed,  but  are  invaluable  as  a  cheap  means 
of  renovating,  bringing  up,  and  sustaining  the  land. 
Clover  is  one  of  the  principal  crops  employed  for  this 
purpose,  more  largely  on  this  continent  than  any  other, 
buckwheat,  rye,  rape,  wild  mustard,  sainfoin,  spurry, 
turnips  sown  thick,  indian  corn  sown  thick,  and  cow 


92  VEGETABLE    MANURES. 

peas,  are  some  of  those  more  commonly  used  in  this 
and  other  countries.  They  add  organic  matter  largely 
to  the  soil,  which  organic  matter  they  have  drawn  in 
great  part  from  the  air,  and  their  roots  bring  inorganic 
substances  from  the  subsoil  to  the  surface,  so  that  it  is 
within  the  reach  of  succeeding  crops.  There  are  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  in  various  districts  as  to  the  proper 
period  for  ploughing  these  crops  under:  it  is  a  matter 
to  be  settled  by  experience  and  convenience.  They 
not  only  add  fertilizing  substances  to  the  soil;  they 
also  improve  its  physical  character.  A  light  soil  is 
somewhat  consolidated,  and  rendered  more  retentive 
of  moisture,  while  a  stiff  one  is  mellowed  and  loosened. 
Some  of  these  green  crops,  such  as  spurry  and  buck- 
wheat, will  grow  well  on  extremely  light,  sandy  soils. 
After  they  have  grown  up  and  been  ploughed  in  a  few 
times,  the  land  is  so  improved  that  it  will  bear  crops 
of  a  more  valuable  nature;  and  thus  by  a  continuance 
of  them  at  proper  intervals,  it  may  not  only  be  kept 
up,  but  steadily  improving. 

The  same  effects  follow  the  ploughing  of  grass  land, 
and  turning  under  of  the  turf.  The  thicker  and  hea- 
vier the  sward  the  better,  because  then  a  larger  amount 
of  fresh,  decomposable  organic  matter,  in  the  form  of 
roots,  is  added  to  the  soil.  Where  land  has  been  in 
grass  for  some  years,  say  four  or  five,  the  weight  of 
roots  under  the  surface  is  in  some  cases  twice  as  much 
as  the  weight  of  the  grass  above;  these  roots  all  de- 
compose, and  of  course  enrich  the  soil  very  materially. 

There  are  few  cases  in  which  a  judicious  course  of 
green  cropping  will  not  improve  land.  In  the  worst 
instances,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  numerous 
trials  before  even  the  hardiest  green  crop  will  succeed; 
when  this  difficulty  is  overcome,  and  a  good  growth 
once  obtained,  experienced  farmers  say  that  the  land 
may  by  proper  after  management  be  brought  to  any 
desirable  state  of  fertility.     It   must    always  be  re- 


PLOUGHING    IN   GREEN   CROPS.  93 

rneinbered  in  bringing  up  land  by  green  crops,  that 
they  really  add  no  inorganic  matter  to  the  soil;  they 
only  bring  it  up  from  the  subsoil,  and  render  insoluble 
combinations  near  the  surface  soluble.  The  inorganic 
part  of  the  soil,  therefore,  is  actually  diminishing  by 
the  occasional  crops  which  are  taken;  and  while  im- 
proving by  these  means,  care  should  for  this  reason  be 
taken  to  add  occasionally  some  form  of  mineral  manure. 

The  practice  of  turning  the  turf  upon  one  edge  when 
ploughing,  seems  to  be  gaining  ground:  it  is  said  by 
its  advocates  that  the  turf  rots  more  surely  and  speedi- 
ly. Those  who  contend  for  laying  it  flat,  say  that  the 
weeds  are  thereby  more  effectually  killed,  and  that  the 
fields  may  be  made  smoother.  Potato  tops,  turnip  and 
beet  tops,  green  weeds,  leaves,  and  every  form  of  green 
vegetable  matter,  may  be  advantageously  ploughed  in 
at  once,  or  carted  to  the  compost  heap.  Nothing  of 
the  kind  should  be  neglected. 

Straw  is  not  usually  applied  to  the  land  until  it  has 
been  worked  over  by  animals,  and  mixed  with  their 
manure:  in  this  form  we  shall  refer  to  it  again.  When 
applied  alone,  it  is  usually  best  and  most  convenient 
to  rot  it  down  in  a  compost  heap,  as  the  long  straw  is 
only  ploughed  under  with  difficulty.  On  stiff  clay 
soils  it  is,  however,  very  beneficial  to  bury  long  straw, 
as  then  it  serves  to  loosen  and  mellow  the  clay,  both 
by  lying  among  and  separating  the  lumps,  and  by  its 
gradual  fermentation  and  decay.  It  has  been  found 
good  practice,  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  to  draw 
out  straw  in  the  autumn,  and  lay  a  thin  covering  of  it 
over  winter  grain.  This  serves  as  a  protection  during 
winter,  and  retains  moisture  when  necessary  during  a 
dry  spring  or  early  summer.  By  the  time  that  the 
stubble  is  ploughed,  it  has  decayed  so  as  to  turn  under 
easily,  and  forms  quite  a  rich  coating  in  the  way  of 
manure. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea,  where  seaweed  can 


94  ANALYSIS   OF    SEAWEEDS. 

be  obtained,  the  farmer  should  embrace  every  oppor- 
tunity for  getting  it.  In  England  and  Scotland,  the 
right  of  way  to  a  beach  where  seaweed  can  be  had, 
increases  the  rent  of  a  farm  several  shillings  per  acre. 
On  many  parts  of  our  own  coast,  too,  the  farmers  are 
very  eager  to  obtain  it.  The  ash  of  some  seaweeds 
analyzed  by  Prof.  Johnston  gave  the  following  results: 

TABLE    IV. 

Potash  and  soda, from  15  to  40  per  cent. 

Lime, —  3  —  21 

Magnesia,    —  7  —  15 

Common  salt, —  3  —  35 

Phosphate  of  lime,    ...  —  3  —  10 

Sulphuric  acid, —  14  —  31 

Silica,   —  1  —  11 

This  table  shows  that  these  ashes  are  rich  in  the 
substances  most  needed  by  our  crops,  particularly  in 
potash,  soda,  sulphuric  acid,  and  phosphoric  acid.  The 
quantity  of  ash  that  they  leave  when  dry,  is  larger  than 
that  in  straw  or  in  hay.  When  freshly  taken  from 
the  sea,  they  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  water. 

Seaweed  is  ploughed  in  green,  or  applied  as  com- 
post. In  either  case  it  decays  very  rapidly,  unless 
extremely  dry,  and  produces  most  of  its  effects  upon 
the  first  crop.  Many  of  the  seaweeds  contain  much 
nitrogen ;  and  this,  while  it  adds  greatly  to  their  value 
as  manures,  increases  the  rapidity  with  which  they 
decompose. 

In  England  rape  dust  is  largely  used  as  a  manure, 
and  with  much  advantage.  The  rape  seed  is  pressed 
to  obtain  its  oil,  just  as  linseed  is,  and  the  hard  cake 
formed  by  pressure  sold  for  manure.  Four  or  five 
hundred  weight  per  acre  are  applied  as  a  top  dressing, 
or  from  1500  to  2000  lbs.  when  it  is  ploughed  in. 
This  is  therefore  a  powerful  manure,  and  is  so  portable 
that  it  would  be  valuable  in  this  country,  could  it  be 


ANIMAL    MANURES.  95 

procured  at  a  reasonable  rate.  Where  green  vegetable 
manures  of  any  description  can  be  easily  obtained 
away  from  the  farm,  the  farmer  will  do  well  to  re- 
member that  there  is  an  especial  advantage  in  their 
application;  they  add  to  his  land  not  only  organic,  but 
inorganic  substances  which  have  never  been  there 
before,  and  are  consequently  a  clear  gain  to  the  soil 
in  every  respect. 

SECTION  IV.    OF  ANIMAL  MANURES. 

We  will  now  take  up  the  second  class,  the  animal 
manures.  These  comprise  the  blood,  flesh,  hair,  horns, 
bones  and  excrements  of  animals.  Manures  of  this 
class  are  more  powerful  by  far  than  the  vegetable 
manures,  because  they  contain  so  much  more  nitrogen. 
I  now  simply  state  this  fact;  the  reason  why  nitrogen 
is  so  efficacious,  will  be  given  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 
Blood  and  flesh  are  among  the  most  valuable  of  all; 
wherever  they  can  be  obtained,  they  should  be  secured 
at  once,  and  either  buried  or  made  into  compost.  All 
of  the  offal  from  slaughter-houses  is  of  much  value, 
though  in  this  country  it  is  often  entirely  wasted. 

It  is  not  uncommon,  in  many  districts,  to  see  horses 
or  cattle  that  die  from  disease,  drawn  out  to  some 
secluded  spot,  and  there  left  to  decay  on  the  surface. 
These  are  known  to  be  some  of  the  most  powerful 
manures  that  the  farmer  could  obtain;  equal  to  guano, 
poudrette,  or  any  of  the  other  more  costly  fertilizers. 
Every  animal  that  dies  should  be  made  into  a  compost, 
or  buried  in  pieces  at  once.  The  best  plan  is  to 
separate  the  flesh,  which  decomposes  readily  and  pro- 
duces an  immediate  effect,  and  make  use  of  the  bones 
according  to  some  of  the  methods  to  be  hereafter 
described. 

The  hair  of  animals  is  an  exceedingly  rich  manure; 
for  this  reason  woolen  rags,  and  the  waste  from  woolen 


96 


ANIMAL    MANURES. 


mills,  are  both  considered  valuable  in  England;  they 
are  sold  there  at  from  $20  to  $40  per  ton,  and  are 
eagerly  sought  after  at  these  prices,  as  not  only  very 
fertilizing,  but  also  very  lasting  in  the  soil.  All  of 
the  hair  obtained  from  the  furs  of  animals  is  there 
scrupulously  saved,  and  sold  at  a  high  price.  Twenty 
or  thirty  bushels  per  acre  produce  an  excellent  effect. 
All  these  parts  of  the  animal  leave  an  ash  corre- 
sponding with  that  of  plants  in  the  substances  which 
it  contains,  with  the  single  exception  of  silica;  this 
does  not  seem  to  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
animal.  We  are  then  now  able  to  point  out  distinc- 
tions between  the  inorganic  matter  in  the  soil,  in  the 
plant,  and  in  the  animal.  They  all  contain  the  same 
substances,  if  we  omit  silica  and  alumina. 

TABLE    V. 

The  soil  contains  silica  and  alumina. 
The  plant  contains  silica,  but  no  alumina. 
The  animal  contains  neither  silica  nor  alumina. 


SECTION   V.    OF    BONES. 

There  is  one  important  part  of  the  animal  yet  un- 
noticed, that  is  the  bones.  Their  composition  is,  when 
dry,  earthy  matter  about  66  lbs.  in  100;  organic  mat- 
ter that  burns  away,  about  34  lbs. 

a.  This  earthy  matter  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
phosphate  of  lime,  that  is,  lime  in  combination  with 
phosphoric  acid  ;  these,  as  already  shown,  are  two 
most  valuable  substances  for  application  to  any  soil. 

b.  The  organic  part  is  called  gelatin,  or  glue;  this 
is  boiled  out  by  the  glue-makers  :  it  is  extremely  rich 
in  nitrogen,  and  is  therefore  an  excellent  manure.  We 
thus  see,  at  once,  how  important  a  source  of  nourish- 
ment for  our  land  is  to  be  found  in  bones.  They  unite, 
from  the  above  statement,  some  of  the  most  efficacious 


DIFFERENT   METHODS    OF    USING    BONES  97 

and  desirable  organic  and  inorganic  manures.  Both 
of  these  parts  are  fitted  to  minister  powerfully  to  the 
growth  of  the  plant. 

When  the  bones  are  applied  whole,  the  effect  is  not 
very  marked  at  first  because  they  decay  slowly  in  the 
soil :  it  is  also  necssary  to  put  on  a  large  quantity 
per  acre.  The  best  way  is  to  hare  them  crushed  to 
powder,  or  to  fine  fragments,  in  mills.  Ten  bushels 
of  dust  will  produce  a  more  immediate  and  abundant 
result  than  80  or  100  bushels  of  whole  bones,  although 
of  course  the  effect  will  be  sooner  over.  An  advanta- 
geous way  of  using  them,  is  to  put  on  8  to  10  bushels 
of  dust  per  acre,  and  half  the  usual  quantity  of  farm- 
yard manure. 

Boiled  bones,  that  have  been  used  by  the  glue- 
makers,  are  still  quite  valuable  :  they  have  lost  the 
greater  part  of  their  gelatine,  but  the  phosphates  re- 
main; and  the  bones  are  so  softened  by  the  long 
boiling  that  they  have  undergone,  as  to  decompose 
quickly,  and  afford  an  immediate  supply  of  food  to 
plants. 

Another  most  important  form  of  applying  bones,  is 
in  a  state  of  solution  by  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol). 
This  is  a  cheap  substance,  costing  by  the  carboy  not 
more  than  2\  to  3  cents  per  lb.  To  every  100  lbs.  of 
bones,  about  50  to  60  of  acid  are  taken;  if  bone  dust 
is  used,  from  25  to  45  lbs.  of  acid  is  sufficient.  The 
acid  must  be  mixed  with  two  or  three  times  its  bulk 
of  water,  because  if  applied  strong  it  would  only  bum 
and  blacken  the  bones  without  dissolving  them. 

a.  The  bones  are  placed  in  a  tub,  and  a  portion  of 
the  previously  diluted  acid  poured  upon  them.  After 
standing  a  day,  another  portion  of  acid  may  be  poured 
on;  and  finally  the  last  on  the  third  day,  if  they  are 
not  already  dissolved.  The  mass  should  be  often 
stirred. 

b.  Another  good  way  is  to  place  the  bones  in  a 

9 


98  USE    OF    BONE   MANURE. 

heap  upon  any  convenient  floor,  and  pour  a  portion  of 
the  acid  upon  them.  After  standing  half  a  day,  the 
heap  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and  a  little  more 
acid  added;  this  to  be  continued  so  long  as  necessary. 
It  is  a  method  which  I  have  known  to  prove  very 
successful. 

In  either  case  the  bones  will  ultimately  soften  and 
dissolve  to  a  kind  of  paste;  this  may  be  mixed  with 
twenty  or  thirty  times  its  bulk  of  water,  and  applied 
to  the  land  by  means  of  an  ordinary  water  cart.  Used 
in  this  way,  it  produces  a  wonderful  effect  upon  nearly 
all  crops. 

A  more  convenient  method  in  most  cases  is  to 
thoroughly  mix  the  pasty  mass  of  dissolved  bones  with 
a  large  quantity  of  ashes,  peat  earth,  sawdust  or  char- 
coal dust.  It  can  then  be  sown  by  hand,  or  dropped 
from  a  drill  machine.  Two  or  three  bushels  of  these 
dissolved  bones,  with  half  the  usual  quantity  of  yard 
manure,  are  sufficient  for  an  acre.  This  is  therefore 
an  exceedingly  powerful  fertilizer.  One  reason  for  its 
remarkable  effect  is,  that  the  bones  are  by  dissolving 
brought  into  a  state  of  such  minute  division  that  they 
are  easily  and  at  once  available  for  the  plant.  A 
peculiar  phosphate  of  lime  is  formed,  called  by  che- 
mists a  superphosphate,  which  is  very  soluble;  and  in 
addition  to  this  we  have  the  sulphuric  acid,  of  itself 
an  excellent  application  to  most  soils. 

Bones  are  useful  in  nearly  every  district,  and  are 
peculiarly  adapted  to  all,  or  at  least  to  most  of  those 
situations,  where  the  land,  without  heavy  manuring, 
no  longer  bears  good  wheat,  or  indian  corn,  or  other 
grains.  In  a  great  majority  of  cases,  where  land  is 
run  down  by  grain  cropping,  the  use  of  bones  in  some 
of  the  forms  above  mentioned,  is  of  all  things  the 
most  likely  to  meet  the  deficiency.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  the  ash  of  grain  is  peculiarly  rich  in  phos- 
phates; consequently,  as  grain  is  generally  sold  off, 


USE    OF   BONE    MANURE.  99 

the  phosphates  are  most  readily  exhausted;  in  bones 
therefore  we  find  just  the  manure  for  restoring  them, 
and  with  little  expense.  This  has  been  already 
tried  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  and  with  most  en- 
couraging success.  I  would  particularly  recommend 
farmers  to  experiment  with  bones  dissolved  in  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  dissolving  of  them  is  a  simple  busi- 
ness, and  can  be  easily  shown  on  a  small  scale,  by  the 
teacher  to  his  class.  He  can  do  it,  for  instance,  in  a 
teacup  or  tumbler,  or  on  a  plate  or  a  flat  stone.  The 
cheapness  of  this  manure  is  a  great  recommendation. 
Two  bushels  of  bones  would  not  certainly  cost  more 
than  $1*00;  then  say  50  lbs.  of  acid  to  dissolve  them 
would  cost  by  the  carboy,  $1*50,  making  only  $2*50 
for  a  quantity  quite  sufficient  for  an  acre,  with  half 
the  usual  dressing  farm-yard  manure.  It  would  be 
worth  almost  as  much  as  this,  to  cart  the  common  ma- 
nure from  the  yard,  to  say  nothing  of  its  value.  There 
are  few  farms  on  which  bones  enough  might  not  be 
collected  in  the  course  of  a  year,  to  help  out  in  this 
way  the  manuring  of  several  acres. 

Bones  may  not  only  be  applied  successfully  to  the 
ordinary  cultivated  crops,  but  also  to  meadows  and 
pastures.  In  some  of  the  older  dairy  districts,  a  few 
bushels  of  bone  dust  per  acre  will  at  once  restore 
worn-out  pastures.  The  reason  is,  that  the  milk  and 
cheese,  which  are  in  one  form  or  another  sold  and  car- 
ried away,  contain  considerable  quantities  of  phos- 
phates in  their  ash.  These  are  restored  to  the  land 
by  bones.  It  is  calculated  by  Prof.  Johnston,  that  a 
cow  giving  20  quarts  of  milk  per  day,  takes  from  the 
soil  about  2  lbs.  of  phosphate  of  lime  or  bone  earth 
in  each  week.  There  would  thus  be  required  three  or 
four  lbs.  of  bones,  to  make  good  this  loss.  If  it  is 
not  made  good  in  some  way,  the  rich  grasses  after  a 
time  cease  to  flourish;  being  succeeded  by  those  which 
require  less  phosphate  of  lime,  and  therefore  do  not 


100  USE    OF    BONE    MANURE- 

furnish,  when  eaten  by  the  cow,  so  rich  or  so  abun- 
dant milk. 

All  of  these  uses  of  bones  which  have  been  de- 
scribed, are  understood  and  appreciated  in  England; 
so  much  so.  that  the  bones  are  all  collected  with  most 
scrupulous  care,  and  are  even  imported  from  every  other 
country  where  they  can  be  advantageously  obtained. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  great  waste  of  them  in  this 
country  may  soon  cease,  and  that  they  will  be  eagerly 
sought  after  by  American  farmers. 

Thus  much  as  to  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  various 
parts  of  animals:  we  enter,  in  the  next  chapter,  an- 
other most  important  department  of  animal  manures. 


101 


CHAPTER  IX, 

MANURES  (CONTINUED). 

Comparative  value  of  manures  from  our  domestic  animals;  value 
of  liquid  and  solid  portions:  means  of  preservation.  Why 
nitrogen  renders  manures  so  powerful  and  valuable.  Manure 
from  birds;  reasons  for  its  great  efficacy.  Guano;  its  compo- 
sition and  value.  Fish  manure;  nature  of  its  action.  Shell- 
fish. Saline  and  mineral  manures.  Lime;  forms  in  which  it 
is  used  ;  quicklime;  hydrate  of  lime;  carbonate  of  lime.  Mag- 
nesian  limestone.  Marls.  Greensand  of  N.  Jersey.  Shell 
sand. 

SECTION  I.       OF    THE    MANURES    FROM    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS, 
AND   THEIR    PRESERVATION. 

The  manure  of  various  domestic  animals  is,  in  this 
country,  most  commonly  employed  as  a  fertilizer,  all 
other  manures  being  used  in  comparatively  small  quan- 
tities; and  yet  even  these  are  seldom  preserved  and 
applied  as  carefully  as  they  might,  or  ought  to  be. 

The  principal  varieties  are  those  of  the  ox,  the  cow, 
the  hog,  the  horse,  and  the  sheep.  Of  these,  that  of 
the  horse  is  most  valuable  in  its  fresh  state:  it  con- 
tains much  nitrogen,  but  is  very  liable  to  lose  by  fer- 
mentation. That  of  the  hog  comes  next.  That  of 
the  cow  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  list.  This  is 
because  the  enriching  substances  of  her  food  go  prin- 
cipally to  the  formation  of  milk,  the  manure  being 
thereby  rendered  poorer. 

The  manure  of  all  these  animals  is  far  richer  than 
the  food  given  them,  because  it  contains  much  more 
nitrogen.     This  is  for  the  reason  that  a  large  part  of 


102  INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    THE    PRESERVATION 

the  carbon  and  oxygen  of  the  food  are  consumed  in 
the  lungs  and  blood  generally,  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing up  the  heat  of  the  body.  They  are  given  off  from 
the  lungs,  and  also  by  perspiration  and  evaporation 
through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  in  the  forms  of  carbonic 
acid  and  water. 

From  animals  fed  upon  rich  food,  the  manure  is  much 
more  powerful  than  when  it  is  poor.  In  England,  for 
instance,  where  they  fatten  cattle  largely  on  oil-cake, 
it  is  calculated  that  the  increased  value  of  the  manure 
repays  all  of  the  outlay.  This  is  the  reason  why  hu- 
man ordure  is  better  than  manure  from  any  of  the 
animals  mentioned  above,  the  food  of  man  being  rich 
and  various. 

All  these  kinds  of  manure  should  be  carefully  col- 
lected and  preserved,  both  as  to  their  liquid  and  solid 
parts.  The  liquid  part  or  urine  is  particularly  rich  in 
the  phosphates  and  in  nitrogen.  This  part  is  by  very 
many  farmers  permitted  in  a  great  degree  to  run  away 
or  evaporate.  Some  farmyards  are  contrived  so  as  to 
throw  the  water  off  entirely,  others  convey  it  through 
a  small  ditch  upon  the  nearest  field.  The  liquid  ma- 
nure which  might  have  fertilized  several  acres  in  the 
course  of  the  season,  is  thus  concentrated  upon  one 
small  spot,  and  the  consequence  is  a  vegetation  so 
rank  as  to  be  of  very  little  use.  Spots  of  this  kind 
may  be  seen  in  the  neighborhood  of  many  farm-yards, 
where  the  grass  grows  up  so  heavy  that  it  falls  down 
and  rots  at  the  bottom,  and  has  to  be  cut  some  weeks 
before  haying  time,  producing  strong  coarse  hay  that 
cattle  will  scarcely  touch. 

The  proper  way  to  save  this  liquid  is  to  have  a  tank 
or  hole,  into  which  all  the  drainings  of  the  yard  may 
be  conducted.  If  left  here  long,  this  liquid  begins  to 
ferment,  and  to  lose  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammo- 
nia, which  it  will  be  remembered  is  a  compound  of 
nitrogen  and  hydrogen.     To  remedy  this,  a  little  sul- 


OF    FARMYARD    MANURE.  103 

phuric  acid,  or  a  few  pounds  of  plaster,  may  be  occa- 
sionally  thrown  in.  The  sulphuric  acid  will  unite 
with  the  ammonia,  and  form  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
which  will  remain  unchanged,  not  being  liable  to 
evaporate.  Others  prefer  to  mix  sufficient  peat,  ashes, 
sawdust,  or  fine  charcoal,  with  the  liquid  in  the  tank, 
to  soak  it  all  up;  others  still  pump  it  out  and  pour  it 
upon  a  compost  heap.  One  point  is  to  be  noticed  in 
the  management  of  a  tank.  Only  the  water  which 
naturally  drains  from  the  stables  and  yards  should  be 
allowed  to  enter  it:  all  that  falls  from  the  eaves  of 
the  buildings  should  be  discharged  elsewhere.  Regu- 
lated in  this  way,  the  tank  will  seldom  overflow,  and 
the  manure  collected  in  it  will  be  of  the  most  valua- 
ble and  powerful  description.  The  tank  may  be  made 
of  stone,  brick,  or  wood,  as  is  most  convenient,  and 
need  cost  but  very  little. 

While  the  liquid  manure  is  actually  in  many  cases 
almost  entirely  lost,  the  solid  part  is  often  allowed  to 
drain  and  bleach,  until  nearly  every  thing  soluble  has 
washed  away;  or  is  exposed  in  heaps  to  ferment,  with- 
out any  covering.  In  such  a  case  ammonia  is  always 
formed  and  given  off:  it  may  often  be  perceived  by 
the  smell,  particularly  in  horse  manure.  The  fact  may 
also  be  shown,  by  dipping  a  feather  in  muriatic  acid 
and  waving  it  over  the  heap.  If  ammonia  in  any 
quantity  is  escaping,  white  fumes  will  be  visible  about 
the  feather,  caused  by  the  formation  of  muriate  of 
ammonia.  A  teacher  can  exemplify  this  by  holding 
a  feather,  dipped  in  the  same  way,  over  an  ammonia 
bottle.  This  escape  of  so  valuable  a  substance  may  be 
in  a  great  measure  prevented  by  shovelling  earth  over 
the  surface  of  the  heap,  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three 
inches.  If  this  does  not  arrest  it  entirely,  sprinkle  a 
few  handfuls  of  plaster  upon  the  top:  the  sulphuric 
acid  of  the  plaster  will  as  before  unite  with  the  am- 
monia, and  form  sulphate  of  ammonia. 


104  PRESERVATION    OF    HORSE    MANURE. 

Manures  containing  nitrogen  in  large  quantity  are 
so  exceedingly  valuable,  because  this  gas  is  required 
to  form  gluten,  and  bodies  of  that  class,  in  the  plant; 
this  is  particularly  in  the  seed,  and  sometimes  also  in 
the  fruit.  Plants  can  easily  obtain  an  abundance  of  car- 
bon, oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  from  the  air,  the  soil,  and 
manures.  Not  so  with  nitrogen.  They  can  not  get 
it  from  the  air:  there  is  little  of  it  in  most  soils;  and 
hence  manures  which  contain  much  of  it,  produce 
such  a  marked  effect.  Not  that  it  is  more  necessary 
than  the  other  organic  bodies,  but  more  scarce;  at 
least  in  a  form  available  for  plants.  The  same  rea- 
soning applies  to  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  not  more 
necessary  than  the  other  inorganic  ingredients;  but 
still  is  more  valuable,  because  more  uncommon  in  the 
soil  and  in  manures. 

In  all  places  where  manure  is  protected  from  the 
sun,  and  from  much  washing  by  rain,  its  value  is 
greatly  increased. 

a.  Horse  manure  particularly  should  not  be  left  ex- 
posed at  all:  it  begins  to  heat  and- to  lose  nitrogen 
almost  immediately,  as  may  be  perceived  by  the  smell. 
It  should  be  mixed  with  other  manures,  or  covered  by 
some  absorbent  earth,  as  soon  as  possible.  Almost 
every  one  who  enters  a  stable  in  the  morning,  where 
there  there  are  many  horses,  must  perceive  the  strong 
smell  of  ammonia  that  fills  the  place.  I  have  seen  in 
some  stables,  little  pans  containing  plaster  of  paris  or 
sulphuric  acid,  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing  these 
fumes,  and  forming  sulphate  of  ammonia,  b.  The 
liquid  which  runs  from  barnyards  and  from  manure 
heaps,  is  shown  by  analysis  to  consist  of  the  most  fer- 
tilizing substances;  and  it  is  calculated  that  where 
this  is  all  allowed  to  wash  away,  as  is  the  case  in 
many  instances,  the  manure  is  often  reduced  nearly 
one-half  in  its  value.  I  have  seen  yards  where  it  was 
almost  worthless,  owing  to  long  exposure. 


MANURE   FROM    BIRDS.  105 

The  farmers  of  this  country  need  awakening  upon 
the  subject  of  carefully  preserving  their  common  ma- 
nures. In  Flanders,  where  every  thing  of  the  kind  is 
saved  with  the  greatest  care,  the  liquid  manure  of  a 
single  cow  for  a  year  is  valued  at  $10;  here  it  is  too 
often  allowed  to  escape  entirely.  Either  they  are  very 
foolish,  or  we  are  very  wasteful. 

SECTION  II.    OF   MANURE    FROM    BIRDS.       GUANO. 

The  manure  of  birds  is  richer  than  that  of  any  ani- 
mals, for  the  reason  that  here  we  have  the  liquid  and 
solid  excrements  mixed  together.  On  this  account  it 
is  found  to  be  particularly  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  also 
in  phosphates.  The  manure  of  pigeons,  hens,  ducks, 
geese,  and  turkeys,  is  very  valuable,  and  should  be 
carefully  collected.  The  amount  to  be  obtained  from 
these  sources  may  be  thought  so  insignificant  as  to  be 
unworthy  of  notice;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
three  or  four  hundred  lbs.  of  such  manure,  that  has 
not  been  exposed  to  rain  or  sun,  is  worth  at  least  14 
to  18  loads  of  ordinary  manure. 

Guano,  a  substance  that  has  been  so  much  used 
within  the  past  few  years,  is  a  manure  of  this  class. 
It  is  found  in  those  tropical  latitudes  where  there  is 
seldom  or  never  any  continued  rain.  Immense  num- 
bers of  sea  birds  build  their  nests,  rear  their  young, 
and  pass  their  time,  when  not  upon  the  wing,  on  the 
rocky  shores  and  small  islets.  Here  their  excrements 
have  accumulated,  layer  upon  layer,  for  centuries, 
remaining  uninjured  in  those  dry  climates:  beds  of  it 
have  occasionally  been  found,  from  15  to  25  feet  in 
thickness.  The  food  of  these  birds  consists  almost 
entirely  of  fish,  and  hence  their  manure  is  remarka- 
bly rich  in  its  quality.  The  guano,  in  its  best  state, 
is  this  manure  concentrated  by  the  evaporation  of  its 
water. 


106 


VARIETIES    OF   GUANO. 


The  general  composition  of  a  few  of  the  leading 
varieties  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


TABLE    VI. 


Variety. 

Water ; 
per  cent. 

Organic  matter  & 
nmmoniacal  salts 

Phosphates. 

5  to    7 

7  to  10 
10  to  13 
18  to  26 

56-64 
56-66 
50-56 
36-44 

25-29 
16-23 
22-30 
21-29 

This,  it  is  evident  at  a  glance,  is  an  extremely  rich 
manure:  the  quantities  of  ammoniacal  matter,  and  of 
phosphates,  are  remarkably  large.  The  Ichaboe  guano 
contains  much  more  water  than  the  others,  because 
the  climate  in  that  region  is  not  so  dry  as  on  the  west 
coast  of  S.  America.  It  is  also  more  decomposed, 
giving  usually  a  strong  smell  of  ammonia. 

a.  The  Peruvian,  Bolivian  and  Chilian  varieties, 
have  very  little  smell  of  ammonia;  but  if  they  are 
mixed  with  a  little  quicklime,  and  gently  heated,  the 
odor  becomes  extremely  powerful. 

b.  This  little  experiment  also  shows  that  quicklime 
or  caustic  lime  should  not  be  mixed  with  manures  con- 
taining much  nitrogen,  as  through  its  agency  ammonia 
is  formed,  passes  off  into  the  air,  and  is  lost. 

Guano  is  so  energetic  in  its  action,  that  it  should 
not  come  in  contact  with  the  seed,  as  it  might  destroy 
its  vitality.  In  dry  seasons  it  frequently  produces  very 
little  effect,  owing  to  its  not  being  dissolved.  From  2 
to  5  cwt.  per  acre  are  applied;  more  than  5  cwt. 
makes  vegetation  too  coarse  and  luxuriant.  I  knew 
of  8  cwt.  being  put  upon  an  acre  of  turnips:  they  all 
grew  to  tops,  and  produced  no  bulbs.  Even  the  suc- 
ceeding crop  of  wheat  was  so  rank  in  its  growth  that 
the  grain  was  miserable.     The  best  way  of  applying 


EXPERIMENT  WITH  GUANO.  107 

it,  and  indeed  all  of  these  powerful  fertilizers,  is  at 
the  rate  of  from  1  to  2  cwt.  per  acre,  together  with 
half  the  usual  quantity  of  barnyard  manure.  The 
supply  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  is  thus  kept  up, 
while  large  crops  are  at  the  same  time  obtained. 

It  is  a  good  plan,  in  the  case  of  winter  grain,  to 
sow  on  1  cwt.  when  the  grain  is  sown,  and  1  cwt.  in 
the  spring  as  a  top  dressing.  In  sowing,  it  is  best  to 
mix  with  ashes,  sawdust,  peat,  etc.  The  effect  of 
guano  is  not  usually  perceptible  after  the  second  year; 
and  if  the  first  season  be  favorable,  its  most  decided 
action  is  in  the  first  year. 

1  have  recommended  that  experiments  be  tried  in 
dissolving  guano,  or  at  least  its  phosphates,  in  sulphu- 
ric acid.  The  same  superphosphate  would  be  formed 
as  by  its  action  upon  bones.  Ten  or  fifteen  lbs.  of 
acid,  to  100  lbs.  of  guano,  would  be  sufficient.  A 
smaller  qantity  of  guano  might  in  this  way  be  ex- 
pected to  produce  an  equal  effect.  It  is  quite  liable 
to  adulteration,  and  should  only  be  bought  warranted 
as  to  its  purity,  that  the  farmer  may  have  a  remedy  in 
a  case  of  disappointment  arising  from  its  poor  quality. 
This  is  a  good  rule  to  apply  to  all  of  these  high 
priced  manures. 

SECTION  III.      OF   FISH   MANURES. 

Another  animal  manure  is  fish,  and  one  which  is  of 
very  great  value  to  districts  near  the  sea.  In  many 
waters,  white  fish  and  other  varieties  are  caught  in 
immense  numbers  for  this  purpose  alone;  in  other 
places  large  quantities  of  refuse,  the  heads  and  clean- 
ings, can  be  had.  These  are  all  extremely  valuable. 
On  Chesapeake  Bay,  in  Maryland,  the  farmers  collect 
this  refuse  from  the  fisheries  with  great  eagerness,  and 
cart  it  many  miles  inland.  In  other  sections  it  is 
neglected  entirely. 


108  FISH   MANURE. 

The  flesh  of  fish  contains  large  quantities  of  nitro- 
gen, and  acts  with  much  energy  in  hastening  the 
growth  of  plants.  The  hones  contain  more  water, 
and  consequently,  in  their  wet  state,  less  phosphates 
than  those  of  animals;  but  this  very  softness  occasions 
their  rapid  decay,  and  more  speedy  action.  Dry  fish 
hones  are  richer  in  phosphates  than  the  bones  of  ani- 
mals. Fish  decomposes  so  quickly,  that  it  should 
either  be  ploughed  under,  or  made  into  a  well  covered 
compost  heap  at  once:  probably  the  last  is  best.  It 
is  difficult  to  cover  them  in  the  soil  so  that  some  loss 
shall  not  take  place. 

The  use  of  this  manure,  for  the  reasons  given  above, 
has  been  confined  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
sea-coast.  It  would  be  very  desirable  to  find  some 
method  of  preserving  it  so  that  it  might  bear  trans- 
portation, without  losing  its  good  qualities,  and  with- 
out becoming  offensive.  Experiments  are  now  being 
made,  with  a  view  to  this  result,  which  bid  fair  to 
prove  entirely  successful,  and  to  bring  this  admirable 
manure  within  the  reach  of  the  interior  at  a  reason- 
able rate. 

On  many  parts  of  the  Scotch  coasts,  there  are  ex- 
tensive beds  of  scollops  and  muscles,  wThich  are  got 
up  and  applied  largely  to  the  land  with  excellent  ef- 
fect. Our  farmers  near  the  sea  would  do  well  to  seek 
supplies  of  this  kind  also.  The  shells  of  all  shellfish 
are  valuable,  on  account  of  the  lime  which  forms  their 
chief  bulk,  and  the  animal  inhabitants  are  remarkably 
rich  in  nitrogen.  They  all  decompose  rapidly,  and 
require  immediate  attention  to  prevent  loss. 

Thin  shells,  such  as  muscles,  soft  clams,  etc.,  crum- 
ble down  quite  rapidly:  thick  shells  require  cracking 
and  crushing,  to  ensure  their  speedy  decomposition. 


LIME-  109 


OF  SALINE  AND  MINERAL  MANURES. 

The  last  class  of  manures  embraces  those  of  a  saline 
and  mineral  character.  These  are  numerous,  but  not 
many  of  them  have  been  as  yet  largely  used  in  this 
country.  Beside  those  which  are  known  here,  I  shall 
mention  a  few  of  those  that  have  been  found  most 
efficacious  abroad. 

SECTION  IV.       OF   LIME. 

I  will  commence  with  a  mineral  manure,  whose  use 
is  most  widely  extended,  in  every  country  where  agri- 
culture has  made  much  advance.     I  refer  to  lime. 

Lime  is  ordinarily  found  in  the  form  of  common 
limestone,  or  carbonate  of  lime,  a  combination  of  lime 
with  carbonic  acid.  Every  100  lbs.  of  pure  limestone 
contains  about  44  lbs.  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  This 
may  be  driven  off  by  a  high  heat,  as  in  the  lime-kilns. 
The  lime  then  remains  in  what  is  called  the  caustic 
state,  or  quicklime.  It  will  burn  the  tongue,  if  ap- 
plied to  it.  When  water  is  poured  upon  it  (this  may 
be  shown  by  teachers),  it  swells,  cracks,  heats,  and 
finally  crumbles  to  a  fine  powder.  If  the  water  is 
only  used  in  sufficient  quantity  to  slake  the  lime,  it 
will  all  disappear,  being  entirely  absorbed:  it  has  in 
fact  united  with  the  lime,  and  become  a  part  of  the 
solid  stone.  The  heat  during  slaking  is  caused  by  the 
chemical  union  of  water  and  lime.  A  ton  of  lime- 
stone unites  with  about  one-fourth  of  a  ton  of  water. 

If  quicklime  or  slaked  lime  is  exposed  to  the  air,  it 
gradually  absorbs  carbonic  acid;  and  if  left  a  long 
time,  becomes  nearly  all  carbonate  once  more.  If  a 
piece  of  quicklime  be  left  exposed  in  this  way  until  it 
has  crumbled,  it  will  effervesce  again  with  muriatic 
acid,  as  the  limestone  did  before  it  was  burned,  thus 
proving  the  fact  just  stated. 


110  BENEFICIAL    EFFECTS   OF   LEtfE. 

Lime  is  applied  to  the  land  in  the  three  states  above 
mentioned:  quicklime,  hydrate  or  slaked  lime,  and  air- 
slaked  or  mild  lime,  so  called  because  it  has  lost  its 
caustic  properties.  It  is  better  for  the  land  in  all  of 
these  states  than  it  was  before  burning,  because  the 
burning  has  reduced  it  to  an  extremely  fine  powder, 
more  fitted  to  be  dissolved  in  the  soil,  and  to  be  taken  up 
by  the  plant.  From  the  various  tables  already  given, 
it  is  obvious  that  lime  is  an  absolutely  essential  ingre- 
dient in  the  soil,  being  constantly  needed  by  plants  in 
all  of  their  parts;  but  beside  this,  it  performs  other 
functions  there  of  scarcely  less  importance,  differing 
according  to  the  state  in  which  it  is  applied. 

a.  If  the  soil  be  stiff  and  cold,  if  it  is  newly  drain- 
ed, containing  much  of  acid  organic  compounds,  or 
if  there  are  tough,  obstinate  grasses  to  eradicate,  such 
as  bent,  etc.,  it  is  best  to  apply  quicklime,  or  the  caus- 
tic hydrate.  In  either  of  these  conditions  it  has  a 
most  beneficial  and  energetic  action;  lightening  and 
mellowing  stiff  clays,  neutralizing  and  decomposing 
injurious  acid  substances,  and  extirpating  many  hurt- 
ful grasses  and  weeds. 

b.  If  caustic  lime  is  applied  largely  to  light  soils, 
it  may  do  harm  by  too  rapidly  decomposing  the  or- 
ganic matter,  usually  scarce  in  soils  of  this  descrip- 
tion. In  all  such  cases,  and  generally  when  it  is  not 
wished  to  produce  such  effects  as  the  above,  mild  or 
air-slaked  lime  is  best. 

The  action  of  all  varieties  is  invariably  more  mark- 
ed and  permanent  upon  drained  or  thoroughly  dry 
land,  than  upon  that  which  is  wet  and  swampy.  All 
of  these  various  states  of  lime  act  not  only  upon  the 
organic  matter  in  the  soil,  but  upon  the  inorganic  also, 
decomposing  certain  insoluble  compounds,  and  bring- 
ing them  into  a  state  favorable  to  the  sustenance  of 
plants.  Thus  we  see  that  this  manure  performs  many 
most  important  functions. 


DIRECTIONS   FOR    USING   LIME.  Ill 

It  has  a  constant  tendency  to  sink  in  the  soil,  and 
in  one  that  has  been  heavily  limed  for  many  years, 
quite  a  layer  of  it  exists  in  the  subsoil:  this  may  be 
brought  up  by  deep  ploughing,  or  is  made  available 
by  drains,  which  permit  the  roots  to  go  down.  When 
applied  as  a  top  dressing,  it  should  in  almost  every 
case  be  mild,  and  also  when  used  in  composts,  where 
much  animal  manure  is  present.  The  reason  why  pre- 
caution should  be  used  in  the  latter  instance,  is  one 
that  has  been  alluded  to  before,  in  speaking  of  ma- 
nures containing  nitrogen.  In  all  such  cases,  caustic 
lime  causes  a  formation  of  ammonia  from  the  nitro- 
gen, and  a  consequent  escape  of  it  into  the  air.  Where 
much  lime  is  mixed  with  the  manure,  its  depreciation 
in  value  is  very  rapid,  owing  to  this  loss.  Where 
there  is  little  or  no  nitrogen  present,  and  it  is  desired 
to  decompose  peat,  or  to  rot  heaps  of  weeds  and  turf, 
the  caustic  lime  is  to  be  preferred,  as  its  action  is  so 
much  more  energetic. 

It  is  now  considered  the  best  practice  to  apply  lime 
in  rather  small  quantities,  and  often,  as  then  it  is  kept 
near  the  surface,  and  always  active.  Where  it  is 
bought,  lime  should  always,  if  possible,  be  in  the  state 
of  quicklime,  as  in  that  case  there  will  be  neither 
water  nor  carbonic  acid  to  transport.  In  100  lbs.  of 
carbonate  of  lime  or  common  limestone,  are  44  lbs. 
of  water;  in  100  lbs.  of  slaked  lime,  about  25  lbs.  of 
water,  so  that  the  saving  in  both  instances  by  carry- 
ing quicklime  is  considerable. 

Numerous  kinds  of  limestone,  differing  greatly  in 
purity,  are  found  in  various  districts.  In  some  sec- 
tions they  are  all  magnesian  limestones  or  dolomites, 
as  these  are  called  by  mineralogists,  containing,  be- 
side carbonate  of  lime,  carbonate  of  magnesia.  Where 
the  magnesia  is  in  large  quantity,  it  is  decidedly  inju- 
rious, and  in  some  cases  is  so  much  as  to  render  the 
limestone  inadmissible  for  agricultural  purposes.     It 


112  COMPOSITION   OF   LIME. 

is  these  from  which  the  hydraulic  or  water  cement  is 
made.  Although  magnesia  is  necessary  to  plants, 
caustic-magnesia,  if  introduced  in  large  quantity  into 
the  soil,  seems  to  produce  a  very  bad  effect,  and  lime 
that  contains  much  of  it  is  therefore  to  be  avoided. 

Beside  limestones,  there  are  several  other  forms  in 
which  lime  is  largely  used  by  the  farmer.  The  chief 
of  these  is  marl.  This  substance  consists  usually  of 
the  fragments  and  dust  of  sea,  fresh-water,  or  land 
shells,  more  or  less  mixed  with  earth.  When  pure, 
the  greater  proportion  is  carbonate  of  lime.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  composition  of  a  very  excel- 
lent one,  lately  analyzed  in  my  laboratory.  It  was 
from  Peterboro',  N.  Y.: 

table  vn. 

lbs.  in  100. 

Carbonic  acid, 35-00 

Lime, 45"02 

Magnesia, 0'66 

Iron  and  alumina,  with  a  little  phosphoric  acid, .  2-69 

Sand, 957 

Organic  matter, 7*06 

100-00 

Here  the  carbonate  of  lime  amounts  to  about  80 
lbs.  in  100,  while  the  small  quantities  of  magnesia, 
iron,  alumina,  and  especially  of  phosphoric  acid,  add 
materially  to  its  value.  There  are  many  marls  which 
do  not  contain  more  than  from  15  to  25  per  cent  of 
lime.  It  is  necessary  to  apply  these  in  much  larger 
quantity,  to  produce  an  equal  effect,  and  of  course 
they  will  not  bear  transportation  to  so  great  a  dis- 
tance. In  using  marls,  it  is  always  best  to  put  on 
heavier  doses  than  of  any  form  of  burned  lime,  as 
there  is  not,  from  its  mild  nature,  the  same  risk  of 
adding  too  much. 


MARL.  113 

There  are  in  this  country  some  substances  used 
largely  as  manure,  and  called  marls,  that  have  very 
little  lime  in  them.  These  are  in  certain  parts  of 
New  Jersey.  The  lime,  in  shells  scattered  through 
them,  varies  from  10  to  20  per  cent  in  some  speci- 
mens, in  others  there  is  scarcely  any  at  all.  The  effect 
of  these  marls  is,  however,  great  upon  poor  soils,  and 
in  New  Jersey  they  are  very  largely  applied.  The 
secret  of  their  value  lies  chiefly  in  from  12  to  20  per 
cent  of  potash,  which  the  best  of  them  contain,  ac- 
cording to  the  analyses  of  Prof.  H.  D.  Rodgers. 

It  is  always  easy  to  ascertain  whether  any  substance 
supposed  to  be  a  marl,  really  is  so  or  not,  by  trying  it 
with  a  little  muriatic  acid.  If  there  is  much  carbonate 
of  lime,  the  effervescence  will  be  strong  and  violent, 
owing  to  the  bubbling  up  and  escape  of  carbonic  acid 
gas.  Carbonate  of  magnesia  and  many  other  car- 
bonates would,  it  is  true,  produce  a  like  appearance; 
but  these  are  rarely  found  native,  in  very  large  quan- 
tities. 

On  some  sections  of  the  sea-coast,  a  species  of  shell 
or  coral  sand  is  to  be  obtained,  made  up  of  shells  or 
corals  ground  into  fine  fragments  by  the  action  of  the 
sea:  this  is  always  a  valuable  manure.  On  the  coast 
of  Ireland,  the  fishermen  go  out  and  scoop  it  up  from 
a  considerable  depth.  It  contains  usually  some  organic 
remains,  which  add  materially  to  its  value.  This,  like 
the  marls,  may  be  safely  added  to  the  land  in  large 
quantities,  without  fear  of  injury  to  crops. 


10* 


114 


CHAPTER  X. 

MANURES  (CONCLUDED),  SALINE  AND  MINERAL. 

Gypsum  or  plaster,  its  composition  and  properties;  reasons  for  its 
different  effects.  Common  salt,  its  applications  as  a  manure. 
Nitrate  of  soda,  native.  Sulphates,  their  use  and  beneficial 
action.  Efficacy  of  these  saline  manures  upon  various  crops ; 
directions  for  their  use ;  precautions  necessary  in  their  applica- 
tion. Wood  ashes,  their  general  composition  and  value ;  spent 
or  lixiviated  ashes.  Anthracite  coal  ashes;  reasons  why  they 
are  worth  preserving.  Pearl  ashes.  Soot,  its  effects,  and  the 
way  in  which  it  should  be  used. 

SECTION   I.    OF    GTPSUM. 

Another  important  manure  in  which  lime  forms  a 
part,  is  plaster  of  paris,  also  calied  gypsum,  and  che- 
mically, sulphate  of  lime.  In  this  country  it  has  been 
more  generally  used  perhaps  than  in  any  other,  and 
often  with  very  great  benefit.  In  many  cases,  a  few 
bushels  per  acre  bring  up  land  from  poverty,  to  a  very 
good  bearing  condition  :  complaints  are,  however, 
made,  that  after  a  time  it  injures  the  land  in  place  of 
benefitting  it.  This,  in  almost  all  instances,  results  from 
using  it  alone,  without  applying  other  manures  at  the 
same  time.  The  explanation  is  of  the  same  general 
nature  as  that  given  under  lime  in  Chapter  ix.  The 
farmer  has  taken  away  a  variety  of  substances,  and 
has  only  added  gypsum.  If  the  land  is  entirely  ex- 
hausted at  last  under  such  treatment,  it  is  obviously 
not  the  fault  of  the  gypsum.  There  are  many  large 
districts  where  it  produces  no  effect;  but  it  may  al- 
ways be  considered  certain,  that  where  gypsum  or  lime 
do  no  good,  there  is  already,  in  one  form  or  another,  a 
supply  of  both  naturally  in  the  soil;  or,  as  has  been 


EFFECTS   OF    GYPSUM.  115 

previously  explained  under  lime,    some    physical  or 
chemical  defect  which  prevents  their  action. 

Gypsum,  before  it  is  burned,  consists  of  sulphuric 
acid,  lime,  and  water;  of  the  latter,  there  are  about 
21  lbs.  in  every  hundred.  This  water  can  be  easily 
driven  off  by  heating  the  ground  gypsum.  This  may 
be  done  with  a  small  quantity,  by  way  of  experiment, 
over  a  common  lamp.  During  heating,  it  whitens : 
it  is  this  burned  gypsum  that  is  used  for  the  cornices 
of  rooms,  for  making  casts,  for  hard  finish,  etc.  When 
water  is  mixed  with  it,  a  considerable  degree  of  heat 
is  produced,  the  21  per  cent  of  water  is  again  ab- 
sorbed, becoming  once  more  a  part  of  the  solid  stone, 
and  the  whole  mass  hardening  or  setting,  as  it  is 
termed,  in  a  few  moments.  It  is  upon  this  property 
of  hardening  when  mingled  with  water,  that  the  uses 
of  gypsum  in  the  arts,  as  above  mentioned,  depend. 

This  manure  frequently  produces  a  most  beneficial 
effect  when  applied  as  a  top  dressing  upon  pastures 
and  meadows  :  it  is  also  a  favorite  and  excellent  appli- 
cation to  young  corn  and  potatoes.  It  is  of  service 
not  only  by  the  valuable  nutriment  which  it  furnishes 
to  the  plant,  but  also  from  a  certain  power  which  it 
possesses  of  absorbing  moisture  and  gases. 

a.  Liebig  has  supposed  that  much  of  its  effect  upon 
grass  land  is  owing  to  this  property,  that  it  attracts 
ammonia  from  the  atmosphere,  and  retains  it  for  the 
use  of  plants.  This  is  without  doubt  an  important 
effect,  but  should  not  be  considered  the  principal  one. 

b.  To  this  same  property  is  to  be  ascribed  its  action 
when  scattered  over  compost  heaps,  or  mixed  into 
the  liquid  in  tanks.  In  both  cases  it  absorbs  ammo- 
nia, and  prevents  its  escape.  White  fumes  of  ammo- 
nia may  sometimes  be  perceived,  both  by  the  eye  and 
the  sense  of  smell,  rising  from  the  surface  of  ferment- 
ing manure  heaps.  A  little  gypsum  sprinkled  over 
the  surface  of  the  heap,  will  arrest  this  evaporation 
and  loss  almost  immediately. 


116  COMMON    SALT   AS    A    MANURE. 

c.  During  drought,  it  seems,  by  its  power  of  attract- 
ing moisture,  to  aid  materially  in  sustaining  the  plant. 
It  is  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and  hence  slowly  dis- 
solves, either  when  buried  in  the  soil  or  left  on  the 
surface.  It  is  best  applied  in  damp  weather,  as  then 
it  can  be  sown  more  easily,  and  will  produce  an  effect 
more  quickly.  The  quantity  applied  per  acre  is  usual- 
ly not  large. 

SECTION    II.    OF    COMMON  SALT,  NITRATES   AND    SULPHATES. 

Common  salt  is  a  manure,  the  use  of  which  is  not 
only  wide  spread,  but  very  ancient.  In  large  quanti- 
ties it  is  injurious,  destroying  vegetation  rather  than 
increasing  its  growth.  In  moderate  quantities,  how- 
ever, it  has  been  found  on  some  soils  very  valuable. 
Such  are  most  likely  to  occur  in  places  far  distant 
from  the  sea.  The  sea  breeze  carries  small  quantities 
of  salt  spray  far  inland,  and  deposits  it  upon  the  soil. 
All  who  live  in  the  vicinity  of  salt  water,  know  that 
its  peculiar  smell  may  often  be  perceived  at  a  distance 
of  many  miles  in  the  interior.  For  this  reason  salt  is 
not  usually  found  to  be  of  much  value  as  a  manure 
near  the  sea. 

A  small  proportion  mixed  in  with  a  compost  heap 
is  likely  to  be  useful.  Another  good  way  is  to  dis- 
solve a  little  in  water  used  for  slaking  quicklime. 
The  compound  thus  formed  is  very  energetic  in  its 
action  upon  vegetable  substances,  and  has  been  found 
an  admirable  application  to  many  soils,  particularly 
on  those  where  there  is  much  inert  vegetable  matter 
that  can  only  be  decomposed  with  great  difficulty. 
Common  salt  is,  according  to  the  popular  definition, 
composed  of  chlorine  and  soda. 

There  are  other  combinations  of  soda,  that  are  be- 
ginning to  be  used  in  this  country,  and  have  been 
greatly  approved  of  in  Europe.     The  most  important 


NITRATE    OF    SODA. 


117 


of  these  is  the  Nitrate  of  Soda.  This  is  composed  of 
nitric  acid  (a  substance  before  described)  and  soda. 
The  nitric  acid  contains  much  nitrogen,  and  is  there- 
fore very  active  as  a  manure.  One  or  two  cwt.  nitrate 
of  soda  have  been  found,  in  many  instances,  to  produce 
a  very  great  growth.  It  gives  a  bright  dark  green  color 
to  the  leaves,  and  increases  the  yield  of  grain.  It  also 
produces  a  marked  improvement  in  grass  crops  and 
pastures.  Grain  that  has  been  grown  by  aid  of  this 
manure  is  said  not  to  give  so  much  fine  flour,  being 
richer  in  gluten,  and  having  a  thicker  skin. 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  in  some  districts  of  South  Ame- 
rica a  natural  product,  being  found  in  a  crust  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground;  it  is  so  abundant  as  to  be 
brought  away  by  the  shipload,  and  may  be  obtained  at 
such  prices  as  would  warrant  the  application  of  it  in 
moderate  quantities.  Other  nitrates  are  manufactured 
which  would  be  excellent  manures,  but  the  price  is 
generally  so  high  as  to  forbid  their  use  with  profit. 
Whenever  refuse  nitrate  of  potash,  that  is,  common 
saltpetre,  can  be  obtained,  or  refuse  liquid  in  which  it 
has  been  dissolved  for  pickling  meat,  etc.,  it  should  be 
mixed  into  a  compost  heap,  and  carefully  preserved. 

There  are  several  compounds  containing  sulphuric 
acid,  called  sulphates,  that  are  also  valuable  whenever 
they  can  be  had  at  reasonable  prices.  Those  that 
have  been  most  commonly  employed,  are  the  sulphates 
of  magnesia  and  of  soda.  From  their  composition, 
both  of  these  must  be  useful;  but  it  would  be  necessary 
to  exercise  a  degree  of  caution  with  the  sulphate  of 
magnesia,  as  it  is  very  soluble,  and  much  of  it  might 
do  harm.  It  will  be  remembered  that  magnesia  in 
any  large  quantity  is  quite  injurious  in  the  soil :  small 
quantities  are  very  useful. 

The  refuse  liquid  from  salt-works  after  the  salt  has 
been  crystallized  out,  contains  some  soluble  compounds 
of  lime,  magnesia,  etc.,  and  might,  applied  carefully 


118 


COMPARISON    OF    SALINE    MANURES; 


in  small  quantities,  be  useful.  Pouring  a  little  occa- 
sionally upon  a  compost  heap,  would  be  the  safest 
and  best  mode  of  trying  it.  A  large  dose  of  this  liquid 
would  be  fatal  to  vegetation. 

SECTION   m.     OF   THE   EFFECTS    OF    SALINE    MANURES, 
AND    THE    BEST    MODES    OF    APPLICATION. 

The  above  are  instances  of  saline  manures,  the  few 
last  given  merely  as  examples  of  a  class.  In  the  fol- 
lowing table  are  mentioned  a  few  cases,  recorded  by 
Prof.  Johnston,  of  their  effect  as  applied  upon  vari- 
ous crops  in  Scotland  : 

table  vm. 


Nitrate  of  soda,       1 
1  cwt.  per  acre.  ) 

Nitrate  of  soda,       ] 
120  lbs.  per  acre) 

Nitrate  of  potash,  ) 
1  cwt.  per  acre.  ) 


1  cwt.  per  acre. 

Nit.  pot.  and  nil. 

soda  mixed. 

Do.       do. 


1|  cwt. 
Do.     do.     do. 

1  cwt.  nit.  soda. 


ON  GRASS  LAND. 
Product  per  acre. 
5  tons  4  cwt. 

3  tons  ^  cwt. 

2  tons  3  cwt. 

ON    OATS. 

>         64  bushels. 
60|  bushels. 

ON    WHEAT. 

[         27  bushels. 
54  bushels . 


Undressed. 
2  tons  12  cwt. 

2  tons  i  cwt. 

1  ton  1\  cwt. 

48^  bushels. 
40  bushels. 

ISi  bushels. 
42  bushels. 


These,  it  will  be  recollected,  are  most  favorable 
results,  selected  to  show  how  great  an  influence  such 
small  quantities  of  these  manures  may  have.  From 
what  has  been  explained  relative  to  the  proportion  of 


A    MIXTURE    SHOULD    BE    PREFERRED,  119 

ash  contained  in  the  crop,  and  the  substances  of  which 
it  is  composed,  we  can  now  understand  why  such  small 
quantities  of  these  manures,  seemingly  thrown  away 
when  spread  over  an  acre  of  ground,  should  still  con- 
tain enough  to  supply  all  that  is  required  by  the  plant 
of  their  particular  constituents.  The  largest  crop  of 
wheat  mentioned  in  Table  viii,  54  bushels,  would  not 
carry  away  in  all  of  the  grain  more  than  60  lbs.  of  ash, 
and  of  this  not  more  than  10  lbs.  would  be  potash  or  soda. 
We  see,  then,  that  the  1  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda  sup- 
plied enough  of  that  material  to  have  furnished  at 
least  150  bushels,  and  a  large  part  of  the  straw  beside. 
The  supplying  of  such  minute  quantities  to  the  plant, 
we  have  seen  to  be  quite  necessary,  as  much  so  as  are 
the  bolts  and  nails  to  a  ship:  these  are  but  a  very 
small  part  of  its  entire  bulk  or  weight,  and  yet  it  could 
not  hold  together  without  them. 

When  the  farmer  intends  to  use  any  of  these  ma- 
nures, it  is  in  nearly  every  case  better  to  make  a  mix- 
ture. One  hundred  weight  of  nitrates  of  potash  and 
soda,  of  common  salt,  sulphate  of  soda  and  sulphate 
of  magnesia,  all  mingled  together,  and  applied  with  a 
few  bushels  of  gypsum,  would  be  much  more  likely  to 
meet  the  wants  of  any  soil,  than  a  hundred  weight  of 
either  one  alone.  Such  mixtures  are  found  remarkably 
effectual,  and  they  are  the  basis  of  the  artificial  ma- 
nures now  gradually  coming  into  vogue.  These  ma- 
nures are  very  excellent  if  the  price  is  reasonable,  and 
the  farmer  assured  of  their  purity.  I  have  known 
instances  of  most  audacious  cheating  in  these  things, 
and  in  a  way  too  that  could  not  readily  be  discovered 
unless  by  a  chemical  examination.  The  farmer  should 
not  buy  these  manures  unless  he  has  perfect  confidence 
in  the  manufacturers,  or  unless,  as  was  recommended 
with  regard  to  guano,  they  furnish  an  analysis  by  com- 
petent chemists,  and  warrant  the  manure  sold  to  be 
equal  in  quality.  If  it  fails  him,  he  can  then  have 
compensation  from  them. 


120  EXPERIMENTS   WITH    COMPOST. 

Where  such  saline  manures  as  I  have  mentioned,  or 
others  having  some  of  the  ingredients  known  to  be 
valuable  for  plants,  can  be  obtained  at  fair  rates,  the 
farmer  would  do  well  to  mix  composts  for  himself; 
adding  25,  50, 100  or  more  pounds,  as  he  may  require, 
of  various  articles  to  his  manure  heap;  or  making 
small  experimental  heaps  to  try  the  effect  of  different 
substances,  and  different  mixtures,  on  his  soils.  This 
last  is  the  best  course  of  all,  as  then  he  feels  his  way 
with  little  expense,  and  only  invests  largely  when  sure 
of  his  return.  It  must  be  remembered,  that  nearly  all 
of  these  manures  are  so  powerful,  that  if  sown  imme- 
diately with  the  seed,  or  laid  on  in  too  large  quanti- 
ties, they  destroy  vegetable  life.  Applied  as  top  dres- 
sings, it  is,  as  in  the  case  of  guano,  advisable  to  mix 
with  ashes,  or  dry  vegetable  mould,  so  as  to  facilitate 
even  sowing,  and  equal  distribution  over  the  surface. 
Just  before  or  after  a  rain  is  the  best  time.  In  a  dry 
season,  all  of  them,  excepting  gypsum,  fail  to  produce 
their  usual  effect,  and  in  some  cases  are  said  to  have 
proved  injurious.  Some  farmers,  on  this  account,  ad- 
vise the  application  of  a  part  in  the  autumn,  and  the 
remainder  at  the  earliest  advisable  period  in  the  spring. 
This  is  an  excellent  plan  for  several  reasons.  If  all  be 
applied  in  autumn,  a  part  washes  away  during  winter 
and  is  lost.  The  half  which  is  added  is  enough  to 
give  the  young  shoots  a  vigorous  start,  and  a  firm 
hold  in  the  soil  before  winter  comes  on;  then  in  spring 
the  other  half  comes  with  none  of  its  strength  or  sub- 
stance lost,  to  push  them  forward  through  the  changes 
of  that  season,  and  to  ensure  an  early  harvest. 

SECTION    IV.    OF    WOOD   AND    COAL   ASHES. 

Nearly  all  varieties  of  ashes  are  valuable  as  manures. 
Those  from  seaweed  are  used  in  some  localities,  and 
are  of  very  great  value;  but  where  the  whole  weed 


COMPOSITION    OF    WOOD    ASHES. 


121 


can  be  obtained,  it  is  better  to  employ  it  in  the  fresh 
state,  so  as  to  add  its  organic  matter  also. 

Wood  ashes  are  very  commonly  used,  and  form  a 
manure  of  great  value.  Below  is  the  composition, 
from  Johnston's  Lectures,  of  ash  from  the  oak  and  the 
beech  :  these  are  merely  given  as  illustrating  the 
general  character  of  wood  ashes. 


TABLE  IX. 

Percentage  of  Oak. 

Potash,    8-43 

Soda,    5-64 

Common  salt,     0-02 

Lime, 74-63 

Sulphate  of  lime,  ....  1-98 

Magnesia,   4"  49 

Oxide  of  iron,     0-57 

Phosphoric  acid,     ....  3'  46 

Silica 0-78 


100-00 


Beech. 

15-83 
2-79 
0-23 

62-37 
2-31 

11-29 
0-79 
307 
1-32 

100  00 


The  substances  composing  these  ashes,  are  seen  at  a 
glance  to  be  of  a  valuable  character  for  applying  to 
the  soil.  Even  without  an  analysis,  we  might  con- 
fidently have  asserted  that  this  would  be  the  case,  from 
the  fact  that  they  had  already  been  found  proper  for 
the  support  of  vegetation.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
proportion  of  potash  and  soda  is  very  considerable, 
being  in  fact  more  in  the  above  ashes  than  in  most 
others.  Beside  these  there  is  quite  an  appreciable 
proportion  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  a  very  large  quan- 
tity of  lime  :  part  of  this  was  in  combination  with  the 
phosphoric  acid.  The  potash,  soda,  lime  and  mag- 
nesia, were  doubtless  for  the  most  part  combined  with 
carbonic  acid,  forming  carbonates.  The  potash,  soda 
and  common  salt,  being  soluble  in  water,  of  course 
act  first  and  disappear  first;  the  lime  and  other  con- 
11 


122  USE    OF    WOOD    ASHES. 

stituents  come  into  action  more  slowly,  but  still  are 
always  steadily  decomposing,  and  constantly  yielding 
food  for  the  plant.  The  effect  of  a  heavy  dose  of 
ashes,  therefore,  is  quite  lasting. 

A  favorite  application  of  this  manure  is  as  a  top 
dressing  upon  grass  crops,  also  for  dusting  over  young 
corn  and  potatoes.  For  this  purpose  ashes  are  often 
used  with  gypsum.  They  are  very  useful  to  absorb 
liquid  from  composts  or  in  tanks,  or,  as  has  been  men- 
tioned in  various  places,  to  mix  with  guano  and  other 
portable  manures  for  sowing.  From  the  considerable 
proportion  of  alkali  contained  in  them,  they  are  quite 
caustic,  and  hence  seem  to  have  a  very  good  effect  in 
extirpating  troublesome  weeds,  on  meadows  and  pas- 
tures. Their  action  in  running  out  poor  grasses,  such 
as  bent,  etc.,  when  the  land  is  otherwise  well  treated, 
is  familiar  to  practical  men.  They  do  this  by  adding 
to  the  soil  substances  which  encourage  the  natural 
growth  of  more  valuable  classes. 

Spent  or  lixiviated  ashes,  that  is,  those  that  have 
been  used  by  soap  or  potash-makers,  are  of  course 
much  less  valuable,  inasmuch  as  they  have  lost  nearly 
every  thing  that  is  soluble  in  water.  Two  thirds,  and 
oftener  three  fourths  of  their  bulk,  however,  continue 
unchanged,  and  in  this  part  there  still  remains  the 
lime,  the  magnesia,  the  phosphates,  etc.,  which  are  of 
importance;  for  this  reason,  these  ashes  should  also 
be  always  carefully  saved  and  applied.  They  are  good 
for  all  of  the  purposes  to  which  ashes  are  applied; 
good  to  mix  with  liquids  or  solids;  and  they  can 
usually  be  obtained  at  very  cheap  rates.  Being  of  so 
much  less  strength,  they  may  profitably  be  applied  in 
greatly  increased  quantity,  and  thus  by  the  large  pro- 
portion of  slowly  dissolving  lime  and  phosphates 
which  they  contain,  form  quite  a  permanent  addition 
to  the  valuable  ingredients  of  the  soil. 

Anthracite   coal    ashes   should   not    be   neglected. 


ANTHRACITE    COAL    ASHES.  123 

There  are  always  cinders  enough  to  pay  for  sifting, 
and,  when  sifted,  soap-makers  are  usually  willing  to 
pay  a  small  price  for  them.  This  shows  that  they 
contain  soluble  matter  enough  to  be  well  worth  sav- 
ing. We  have  no  very  good  analyses  of  anthracite 
ash.  The  English  bituminous  coals  contain  8  to  12 
per  cent  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  some  soda,  the 
remainder  being  chiefly  silica  and  alumina.  The  ash 
from  American  bituminous  coals  probably  resembles 
the  English  in  its  character.  Some  partial  examina- 
tions made  in  my  own  laboratory  at  Yale  College, 
indicate  small  quantities  of  phosphates  in  anthracite 
ash,  and  in  the  specimens  examined  about  two  per  cent 
of  substances  soluble  in  water.  Such  facts  all  show 
that  these  ashes  should  be  preserved,  and  applied  either 
as  a  top  dressing  upon  grass,  or  ploughed  in  as  a  part 
of  composts.  They  would  have  much  of  the  beneficial 
mechanical  effect  of  common  ashes,  and  are  also  good 
for  sowing  with  portable  manures. 

It  has  been  said  that  when  placed  around  trees  in 
large  quantities,  they  are  injurious;  and  this  is  proba- 
bly true,  because  they  have  something  of  a  caustic 
character,  but  it  is  no  reason  for  their  condemnation; 
wood  ashes,  or  any  of  the  powerful  manures  which 
we  have  been  describing,  such  as  guano  or  the  nitrates, 
would  do  the  same  if  applied  with  like  freedom.  A 
manure  which  is  highly  beneficial  in  small  quantity, 
may,  in  large  quantity,  be  perfectly  destructive  to 
vegetation. 

SECTION  V.  OF  PEAT  ASHES,  SOOT,  ETC. 

In  all  situations  where  peat  is  burned,  the  ashes 
will  be  found  worth  something  as  manure.  They 
usually  contain  5  or  6  per  cent  of  potash  and  soda,  con- 
siderable quantities  of  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  etc.,  being 
therefore  worth  about  as  much  as  the  poorer  kinds  of 


124  PEAT   ASHES. 

wood  ashes.  In  wet  land  where  varieties  of  peat 
abound,  which  are  only  decomposed  with  great  diffi- 
culty, it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  burn  on  a  large 
scale,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  ash  as  manure. 
Heaps  are  made  at  convenient  distances  directly  upon 
the  surface  of  the  bog,  and  the  fire  started  by  means 
of  a  little  dry  peat  in  the  centre  of  each  heap.  As  it 
burns  through  to  the  outside,  fresh  peat  is  dug  up  and 
thrown  on,  and  so  the  process  may  be  kept  up  as  long 
as  desirable. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  as  to  all  these  varieties  of  ashes, 
that  their  value  is  greatly  impaired  by  exposure  to  the 
weather.  This  is  in  very  many  cases  not  attended 
to;  the  ash  heap  is  exposed  to  rain,  and  often  to  the 
drippings  of  a  roof  beside.  In  either  case  a  large 
portion  of  the  soluble  and  most  valuable  ingredients 
are  washed  away,  and  the  worth  of  the  ashes  to  the 
same  extent  diminished.  They  should,  always,  for 
these  reasons,  be  kept  carefully  covered. 

Soot  is  a  manure  that  is  much  neglected  in  this 
country,  but  is  highly  valued  abroad.  It  results  from 
a  species  of  distillation  of  wood,  or  of  bituminous 
coal;  the  products  of  this  distillation  are  condensed 
on  the  sides  of  the  chimney,  as  the  ascending  smoke 
cools.  The  smoke  also  carries  up  and  deposits  large 
quantities  of- the  inorganic  bodies  from  the  fuel.  Soot 
thus  comes  to  contain  a  great  variety  of  both  inorganic 
and  organic  bodies.  We  find,  for  one  very  prominent 
constituent,  a  large  quantity  of  ammonia.  Beside 
this,  there  are  phosphates,  sulphates,  carbonates  and 
chlorides  of  lime,  potash,  soda,  iron,  and  magnesia. 
These  are  the  chief  inorganic  substances,  and  show  it 
to  be  a  quite  powerful  manure.  It  contains  so  much 
ammonia  that  when  laid  in  heaps  of  grass,  the  plants 
under  it  are  destroyed  very  speedily. 

No  analysis  of  soot  is  given  here,  because  from  the 
way  in  which  it  is  deposited,  the  composition  must 


SOOT  A  VALUABLE  MANURE.  125 

vary  greatly  with  the  fuel,  and  with  the  circumstances 
of  its  combustion.  In  very  dry  seasons,  soot,  like 
some  other  of  the  powerful  manures  we  have  men- 
tioned, sometimes  does  injury.  From  30  to  60  bushels 
per  acre  are  applied,  commonly  as  a  top  dressing.  It 
gives  a  beautiful  dark  green  color  to  grass  or  grain, 
and  on  many  soils  increases  the  yield  very  largely. 
If  a  little  exertion  were  made,  there  are  few  places 
where  considerable  quantities  of  this  strong  manure 
could  not  be  obtained. 

In  Great  Britain  it  has  been  proposed  to  crush  de- 
caying granites,  to  mix  them  in  heaps  with  quick- 
lime, and  then  allow  the  whole  to  stand  for  some 
months.  Granite  contains  much  potash,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed that  by  the  prolonged  action  of  the  caustic  lime, 
a  part  of  this  would  become  soluble,  and  fit  for  the 
nourishment  of  plants.  In  some  parts  of  this  country, 
masses  of  decayed  rock  exist,  which  it  would  be  well 
to  examine  with  reference  to  their  economical  value 
for  applying  to  the  land. 


126 


CHAPTER  XL 
COMPOSITION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  CROPS. 

Distribution  of  substances  in  various  parts  of  the  plant.  Wheat; 
wheaten  flour;  gluten.  Time  of  cutting  grain.  Rye  flour. 
Barley.  Oatmeal.  Buckwheat.  Indian  Corn.  Peas  and  Beans. 
Potatoes.  Turnips,  Carrots,  Beets,  etc.  Comparative  amounts 
of  nutritive  matter  per  acre.     Cabbage.     Grass  crops. 

SECTION    I.    OF    WHEAT,    RYE    AND    BARLEY. 

We  have  already,  to  a  considerable  extent,  entered 
upon  this  subject  j  but  the  information  given,  parti- 
cularly with  regard  to  the  organic  part  of  crops,  has 
been  of  a  very  general  character.  We  have  noticed 
the  chief  substances  which  compose  this  part,  but  have 
said  little  as  to  their  distribution  in  the  plant,  or  in  its 
several  portions. 

Various  points  relative  to  the  composition  of  ash 
from  the  straw,  grain,  and  roots  of  our  ordinary  crops, 
have  been  noticed  in  Chapter  III,  and  we  shall  not 
revert  to  them  at  any  length  here. 

In  the  stalk  and  leaves  of  grain,  we  find  that  woody 
fibre  is  the  leading  substance;  constituting  in  some 
cases,  when  the  plant  is  ripe,  more  than  three-fourths 
of  the  whole  weight.  In  the  grain,  on  the  other  hand, 
woody  fibre  only  amounts  to  2  or  3  per  cent.  The 
largest  part  here  usually  consists  of  starch  :  there  are 
also  considerable  quantities  of  gluten,  or  of  some  other 
bodies  having  the  same  nature,  containing  nitrogen; 
and  beside  these,  some  oily  or  fatty  substances.  In 
the  straw,  these  last  only  exist  in  very  small  quantities. 


COMPOSITION   OF    GRAIN     AND   FLOUR.  127 

a.  All  grains,  as  sold  in  market,  or  stored  in  gra- 
naries, and  in  the  state  usually  considered  dry,  contain 
from  10  to  16  per  cent  of  water,  which  may  be  driven 
off  by  a  gentle  heat.  Nearly  every  variety  of  flour  has 
a  little  larger  amount  than  the  above. 

We  will  now  notice  the  composition  of  some  of  the 
leading  varieties  of  grain,  in  their  organic  part. 

Wheat  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  crops. 
The  grain  contains  from  50  to  70  per  cent  of  starch, 
from  10  to  20  per  cent  of  gluten,  and  from  3  to  5  per 
cent  of  fatty  matter.  The  proportion  of  gluten  is  said 
to  be  largest  in  the  grain  of  quite  warm  countries. 

a.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  in  all  the  seeds  of 
wheat,  and  of  other  grains,  the  principal  part  of  the 
oil  lies  near,  or  in  the  skin,  as  also  does  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  gluten.  The  bran  owes  to  this  much  of 
its  nutritive  and  fattening  qualities.  Thus,  in  refining 
our  flour  to  the  utmost  possible  extent,  we  diminish 
somewhat  its  value  for  food.  The  phosphates  of  the 
ash  also  lie  to  a  great  degree  in  the  skin. 

b.  These  substances  seem  all  to  be  collected  here 
for  the  benefit  of  the  young  shoot.  When  it  first 
starts,  and  until  it  appears  above  the  surface  and  ex- 
pands its  first  true  leaves,  it  has  to  depend  for  nutri- 
ment on  the  stores  already  provided  in  the  seed. 
These  have  been  prepared  not  only,  but  deposited  in 
that  part  of  the  seed  most  near  to  the  germ,  so  that 
its  nourishment  may  be  easily  and  readily  obtained. 

The  best  fine  flour  contains  about  70  lbs.  of  starch 
in  each  hundred.  The  residue  of  the  hundred  lbs. 
consists  of  10  or  12  lbs.  gluten,  6  to  8  lbs.  of  sugar  and 
gum,  10  to  14  lbs.  of  water,  and  a  little  oil. 

Gluten,  as  has  been  mentioned,  swells  up  to  a  great 
bulk  when  heated,  and  becomes  full  of  holes.  The 
same  thing  takes  place  in  the  baking  of  bread.  It  is 
the  gluten  that  gives  tenacity  to  the  dough,  so  that 
when  bubbles  of  gas  are  liberated  during  the  fermen- 


128  TIME    FOR    CUTTING   GRAIN. 

tation  produced  by  yeast,  the  gluten  stretches  as  it 
expands,  and  thus  leaves  the  baked  bread  light  and 
full  of  little  holes.  Flour  which  contains  much  gluten, 
is  that  which  is  ordinarily  called  strong. 

The  time  of  cutting  grain  very  sensibly  affects  the 
proportion  of  fine  flour  and  bran  yielded  by  samples 
of  it.  Careful  experiments  have  shown,  with  regard  to 
wheat,  that  when  cut  from  10  to  14  days  before  it  is 
fully  ripe,  the  grain  not  only  weighs  heavier,  but 
measures  more  :  it  is  positively  better  in  quality,  pro- 
ducing a  larger  proportion  of  fine  flour  to  the  bushel. 
When  the  grain  is  in  ihe  milk,  there  is  but  little  woody 
fibre;  nearly  every  thing  is  starch,  gluten,  sugar,  etc., 
with  a  large  percentage  of  water.  If  cut  10  or  12 
days  before  full  ripeness,  the  proportion  of  woody 
fibre  is  still  small;  but  as  the  grain  ripens,  the  thick- 
ness of  skin  rapidly  increases,  woody  fibre  being  formed 
at  the  expense  of  the  starch  and  sugar;  these  must 
obviously  diminish  in  a  corresponding  degree,  the 
quality  of  the  grain  being  of  course  injured.  The 
same  thing  is  true  as  to  all  of  the  other  grains. 

It  has  been  stated  that  what  is  ordinarily  called  dry 
flour,  contains  from  12  to  16  per  cent  of  water.  When 
made  into  bread  and  baked,  it  retains  this,  and  absorbs 
in  addition  a  much  larger  quantity.  Prof.  Johnston 
gives,  as  the  result  of  some  trials  made  in  his  labora- 
tory on  bread  one  day  old,  the  large  proportion  of  45 
lbs.  of  water  in  100  lbs.  of  bread.  Dumas  found  45 
per  cent  in  bread  at  Paris.  This  is  much  more  than 
is  usually  supposed  possible,  yet  there  is  every  reason 
to  consider  the  above  determination  correct.  We  may 
then  conclude  that  every  100  lbs.  of  bread,  in  the  or- 
dinary state  as  wTe  use  it,  contains  from  30  to  45  lbs. 
of  water.  Strong  flour,  that  which  was  mentioned  as 
containing  much  gluten,  and  rising  well  in  bread,  will 
absorb  and  retain  a  still  larger  amount  of  water:  it  is 
therefore  most  profitable  to  the  baker, 


RYE  AND  BARLEY.  129 

Rye  flour  more  nearly  resembles  wheaten  flour  in 
its  composition  than  any  other ;  it  has,  however,  more 
of  certain  gummy  and  sugary  substances,  which  make 
it  tenacious,  and  also  impart  a  sweetish  taste.  In 
baking  all  grains  and  roots  which  have  much  starch 
in  them,  a  certain  change  takes  place  in  their  chemi- 
cal composition. 

If  starch  be  taken  and  exposed  to  a  carefully  gra- 
duated heat  for  a  few  days,  it  will  be  found  to  have 
changed  its  character,  to  have  become  partially  soluble 
in  water,  and  also  a  little  sweet.  By  the  action  of 
heat  it  has  been  converted  into  a  species  of  sweetish 
gum,  called  dextrine.  This  is  the  change  which 
occurs  in  baking;  a  portion  of  the  starch  is  altered 
into  this  gum  or  dextrine,  communicating  the  sweetish 
taste  which  is  observable  in  good  bread.  By  baking, 
then,  flour  becomes  more  nutritious,  and  more  easily 
digestible,  because  more  soluble.  This  alteration  hap- 
pens probably  in  baking  any  grain,  but  as  wheat  and 
rye  are  more  used  for  making  bread  than  other  grains, 
we  are  better  acquainted  with  the  transformations 
which  occur  in  them  through  the  agency  of  heat. 

Barley  contains  rather  less  starch  than  wheat,  also 
'ess  sugar  and  gum.  There  is  little  gluten,  but  a  sub- 
stance somewhat  like  it,  and  containing  about  the 
•same  amount  of  nitrogen. 

a.  The  malting  of  barley  depends  on  a  peculiar 
change  which  takes  place  during  germination,  or  the 
sprouting  of  the  seed.  The  starch,  forming  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  it,  and  of  all  or  nearly  all  grains,  is,  as 
we  know,  insoluble  in  water;  how  then  is  it  to  be  of 
use  in  nourishing  the  young  shoot? 

b.  When  the  seed,  moistened  by  water,  and  warmed 
by  the  summer  sun,  swells  and  pushes  forth  its  shoot, 
a  peculiar  substance  called  diastase  is  formed,  which 
has  the  property  of  changing  starch  into  sugar.  This 
sugar  is  of  course  soluble,  and  goes  at  once  into  the 


130  OATS,   BUCKWHEAT,   RICE. 

shoot,  communicating  that  sweetness  so  observable  in 
its  first  growth. 

c.  Barley  is  moistened  and  laid  in  heaps  to  sprout; 
when  the  sprouts  have  got  to  the  proper  length,  the 
heaps  are  opened,  dried,  and  heated,  to  stop  further 
growth,  and  the  sprouts  are  all  rubbed  off.  The 
barley  is  then  in  the  state  called  malt;  the  sugar  from 
this  is  extracted  to  make  beer,  having  all  been  formed 
from  its  starch  by  the  action  of  diastase. 

Oatmeal  is  little  used  as  food  in  this  country,  but  it 
is  equal,  if  not  superior  in  its  nutritious  qualities,  to 
flour  from  any  of  the  other  grains;  superior,  I  have 
no  doubt,  to  most  of  the  fine  wheaten  flour  of  northern 
latitudes.  It  contains  from  10  to  18  per  cent  of  a 
body  having  about  the  same  amount  of  nitrogen  as 
gluten.  Beside  this  there  is  a  considerable  quantity 
of  sugar  and  gurn,  and  from  5  to  6  per  cent  of  oil  or 
fatty  matter;  which  may  be  obtained  in  the  form  of 
a  clear  fragrant  liquid.  Oatmeal  cakes  owe  their 
peculiar  agreeable  taste  and  smell  to  this  oil.  Oat- 
meal, then,  has  not  only  an  abundance  of  substance 
containing  nitrogen,  but  is  also  quite  fattening.  It  is, 
in  short,  an  excellent  food  for  working  animals,  and, 
as  has  been  abundantly  proved  in  Scotland,  for  work- 
ins  men  also. 


SECTION    II.    OF    BUCKWHEAT,    RICE,    INDIAN    CORN,  PEAS 
AND    BEANS. 

Buckwheat  is  less  nutritious  than  the  other  grains 
wdiich  we  have  noticed.  Its  flour  has  from  6  to  10 
per  cent  of  nitrogenous  compounds;  about  50  per 
cent  of  starch,  and  from  5  to  8  of  sugar  and  gum.  In 
speaking  of  buckwheat  or  of  oats,  we  of  course  mean 
without  the  husks. 

Rice  was  formerly  supposed  to  contain  little  nitro- 
gen, but  recent  examinations  have  shown  that  there 


RICE,    INDIAN    CORN.  131 

is  a  considerable  proportion,  some  6  or  8  per  cent  of 
a  substance  like  gluten.  The  percentage  of  fatty 
matter  and  of  sugar  is  quite  small,  but  that  of  starch 
much  larger  than  in  any  grain  yet  mentioned,  being 
between  80  and  90  per  cent,  usually  about  85.  The 
dust  or  siftings  separated  from  rice  in  cleaning  for 
market,  are  stated  by  Prof.  Johnston  to  contain  4  to  5 
per  cent  of  fatty  matter,  and  are  therefore  valuable  for 
feeding. 

Indian  corn  is  the  last  of  the  grains  that  we  shall 
notice.  This  contains  about  60  per  cent  of  starch, 
nearly  the  same  as  oats.  The  proportion  of  oil  and 
gum  is  large,  about  10  per  cent;  this  explains  the 
fattening  properties  of  indian  meal,  so  well  known  to 
practical  men.  There  is,  beside  these,  a  good  propor- 
tion of  sugar.  The  nitrogenous  substances  are  also 
considerable  in  quantity,  some  12  to  16  per  cent.  All 
of  these  statements  are  from  the  prize  essay  of  Mr.  J. 
H.  Salisbury,  published  by  the  N.  Y.  State  Agricul- 
tural Society.  They  show  that  the  results  of  European 
chemists  hitherto  published,  have  probably  been  ob- 
tained by  the  examination  of  varieties  inferior  to  ours; 
they  have  not  placed  indian  corn  much  above  the  level 
of  buckwheat  or  rice,  whereas  from  the  above  it  is 
seen  to  be  in  most  respects  superior  to  any  other  grain. 

The  same  paper  by  Mr.  Salisbury  indicates  some 
value  in  the  cob  of  this  grain.  It  contains  about  2 
per  cent  of  gluten  and  gum,  and  1  or  2  per  cent  of 
sugar,  with  a  little  starch.  It  has  therefore  some  im- 
portance of  its  own  as  food,  when  ground  up  with 
the  grain,  according  to  a  practice  recommended  of 
late  by  many  farmers.  The  oil  of  indian  corn,  like 
that  of  oats,  has  a  peculiar  odor  and  taste,  communi- 
cating both  to  the  meal. 

Sweet  corn  differs  from  all  of  the  other  varieties,  con- 
taining only  about  18  per  cent  of  starch.  The  amount 
of  sugar  is  of  course  quite  large ;  the  nitrogenous  sub- 


132  PEAS    AND   BEANS. 

stances  amount  to  the  very  large  proportion  of  about 
20  per  cent,  of  gum  to  13  or  14,  and  of  oil  to  about  11. 
This,  from  the  above  results,  is  one  of  the  most  nou- 
rishing crops  grown.  If  it  can  be  made  to  yield  as 
much  per  acre  as  the  harder  varieties,  it  is  well  worthy 
of  a  trial  on  a  large  scale. 

We  now  come  to  a  different  class  of  crops,  remark- 
able for  their  nutritious  properties.  The  best  known 
of  these  are  peas  and  beans.  The  most  complete 
analyses  yet  made,  which  are  French,  give  the  per- 
centage of  starch  at  about  40.  The  amount  of  oily 
matter  is  small,  and  of  sugar  only  about  2  per  cent. 
The  nitrogenous  bodies  are  of  a  peculiar  nature,  and 
are  usually  called  legumin  or  albumen;  they  contain 
about  as  much  nitrogen  as  gluten,  and,  in  the  dried 
peas  or  bean  meal,  amount  to  from  25  to  30  per  cent. 
The  meal,  in  its  ordinary  condition,  contains  from  15 
to  20  per  cent  of  water. 

Both  peas  and  beans  are,  according  to  the  above 
statements,  extremely  nutritious.  Experience  in 
France,  Germany  and  England,  sustains  this  theoreti- 
cal view.  They  are  in  all  of  those  countries  highly 
valued  for  feeding  to  stock,  and  are  also  a  chief  reli- 
ance as  food  among  the  lower  classes,  with  whom  they 
take  the  place  of  bread.  They  occasionally  come  into 
a  rotation  with  great  advantage,  and  their  field  culture 
will  probably  be  gradually  extended  in  this  country. 

There  is  one  class  of  seeds,  such  as  linseed,  rape 
seed,  etc.,  which  abound  in  oil,  amounting  in  some 
cases  to  from  18  to  25  per  cent;  this  may  be,  and  is, 
separated  by  simple  pressure.  Beside  the  oil,  they  are 
uncommonly  rich  in  nitrogenous  substances,  containing 
about  as  much  as  peas  or  beans.  These  seeds,  then, 
are  of  great  value  for  feeding  to  fattening  animals.  A 
few  pounds  per  day  increases  their  growth  remarkably. 
The  linseed  cake,  from  which  the  oil  has  been  mostly 
expressed,  is  a  most  admirable  food,  and  is  nearly  all 


ROOT    CROPS.  133 

exported  from  this  country  to  England,  for  the  use  of 
British  farmers,  who  know  its  value  and  are  eager  to 
purchase  it. 

SECTION    III.    OF    THE    ROOT    CROPS 

In  the  root  crops  we  find  quite  different  character- 
istics from  any  yet  mentioned.  In  some  of  them 
starch  almost  entirely  disappears,  other  bodies  of  a 
somewhat  similar  nature  taking  its  place.  The  po- 
tato, and  a  few  other  less  known  crops,  are  exceptions. 
Another  distinguishing  feature  is  the  quantity  of  water 
which  they  all  contain.  About  16  per  cent  has  been 
the  highest  amount  hitherto  mentioned,  but  now  we 
shall  find  a  very  greatly  increased  proportion. 

The  potato,  as  taken  from  the  ground,  contains 
about  75  per  cent  of  water,  or  three  fourths  of  its 
whole  weight;  of  the  remainder,  from  14  to  20  per 
cent  is  starch.  There  is  about  1  per  cent  of  a  nitro- 
genous compound  like  albumen,  and  the  rest  is  made 
up  of  woody  fibre,  gum,  and  sugar.  The  starch  of  the 
potato  is  contained  in  little  cells,  and  is  in  small  rounded 
masses.  Grating  destroys  the  cells,  and  water  will 
separate  the  starch  as  described  before.  When  the 
tuber  is  attacked  by  potato  disease,  its  first  appear- 
ance is  in  the  walls  of  the  cells,  the  starch  remaining 
uninjured  for  a  considerable  time;  it  can  even  be  sepa- 
rated after  the  disease  has  progressed  till  the  potato  is 
worthless  for  any  other  purpose. 

By  keeping,  the  starch  of  potatoes  gradually  dimi- 
nishes, being  converted  into  a  species  of  gum.  This 
is  the  reason  why  potatoes  are  apt  to  be  watery  and 
soft  in  the  spring,  and  to  have  a  disagreeable  sweet- 
ish taste.  When  they  are  allowed  to  sprout,  from 
being  in  too  warm  a  place,  a  great  deterioration  en- 
sues. This  is  for  the  reason  that  the  starch,  as  in  the 
grains,  being  turned  in  a  great  degree  to  sup-ar  and 
12 


134  ROOT   CROPS. 

gum  during  germination,  goes  into  the  young  shoot; 
subtracting,  of  course,  much  from  the  nutritive  quali- 
ties of  the  tuber. 

The  turnip  abounds  still  more  in  water  than  the  po- 
tato. The  proportion  given  by  Boussingault,  is  nine- 
tenths  of  its  whole  weight  :  other  authors  agree  in 
making  it  about  the  same  quantity.  The  remaining 
tenth  contains  woody  fibre,  a  little  oily  substance, 
some  gum,  and  about  one  per  cent  of  nitrogenous  com- 
pound. There  is  nothing  more  than  a  trace  of  starch, 
but  a  small  percentage  of  a  substance  called  pedine, 
which  seems  to  answer  the  same  purpose  in  feeding. 

The  mangold-wurtzel,  the  carrot,  the  beet,  and  the 
parsnip,  all  contain  in  their  fresh  state  from  85  to  90 
per  cent  of  water.  The  parsnip  and  the  carrot  have 
a  little  more  of  nitrogenous  compounds  than  the 
others.  The  sugar-beet,  according  to  Payen,  has  about 
10  per  cent  of  sugar;  carrots  and  parsnips,  which  are 
also  quite  sweet,  have  from  5  to  7  per  cent.  In  nearly 
all  of  these  roots,  there  are  small  quantities  of  starch, 
gum,  and  oily  matter. 

Such  facts  as  the  above  may  seem  to  place  these 
crops  very  low  in  the  scale,  as  to  their  nutritive  pro- 
perties; but  before  we  decide  this  question,  we  must 
consider  the  amount  that  is  produced  per  acre. 

a.  Twenty-five  tons  of  turnips  is  not  an  uncommon 
crop  on  good  land:  if  these  contain  but  10  lbs.  of 
solid  matter  in  every  100,  the  aggregate  amount  from 
25  tons  would  be  5000  lbs. 

b.  Thirty  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre,  at  60  lbs. 
per  bushel,  would  only  give  1800  lbs.  The  dry  mat- 
ter of  the  turnip  is  nearly  as  nutritious  as  wheaten 
flour,  and  we  see  from  the  above  that  there  would  be 
nearly  three  times  as  much  of  it.  If  we  take  some 
of  the  other  roots,  which  produce  quite  as  large  a 
weight  per  acre  and  contain  less  water,  the  comparison 
will  be  still  more  favorable  to  root  crops. 


VALUE  OF  ROOT  CROPS.  135 

c.  Indian  corn  competes  better  with  them.  Land 
that  would  yield  25  tons  of  turnips  or  30  bushels  of 
wheat  to  the  acre,  would  produce  60  bushels  of  corn ; 
and  this,  at  60  lbs.  per  bushel,  would  give  3600  lbs. 
per  acre,  of  food,  superior  to  either  of  the  others 
weight  for  weight. 

It  is  plain,  from  the  above  facts,  that  the  root  crops 
are  of  great  value.  The  animal,  it  is  true,  has  to  eat 
very  large  quantities,  to  produce  much  increase  in  its 
size;  but  then  the  yield  per  acre  is  so  exceedingly 
great,  as  to  more  than  counterbalance  this  seeming 
disadvantage,  in  the  comparison  with  more  concen- 
trated forms  of  food.  The  cultivation  of  these  crops, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  will  doubtless  be  found  ad- 
vantageous in  districts  where  the  climate  and  soil  are 
well  suited  to  them. 

The  cabbage  has  about  90  per  cent  of  water,  and 
much  ash.  The  proportion  of  nitrogenous  compounds 
is  large,  about  3  to  6  per  cent;  so  that  this  vegetable 
might  also  be  cultivated  here,  as  it  is  abroad,  for  feed- 
ing purposes. 

I  mention  all  of  these  crops,  that  the  farmer  may 
know  something  of  their  valuable  properties,  and  may 
not  consider  himself  tied  down  to  a  regular  succession 
of  two  or  three  only,  such  as  he  has  always  been  ac- 
customed to  cultivate,  or  to  see  others  cultivate.  He 
ought  to  know  that  there  are  others  which  are  equally 
important,  the  occasional  introduction  of  which  may 
be  beneficial  not  only  to  himself,  but  also  to  his  land. 


SECTION  IV.       OF  THE  GRASSES.      THE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE 
VARIOUS    CROPS    COMPARED. 

There  is  yet  one  class  of  crops  used  for  feeding, 
that  has  not  been  adverted  to:  this  includes  the  grasses. 
These  contain,  when  made  into  hay,  about  10  or  12 
per  cent  of  water;  in  the  green  state,  before  drying, 


136  THE    GRASSES. 

about  80  per  cent.  The  dry  part  consists  chiefly  of 
woody  fibre:  beside  this,  there  are  small  and  varia- 
ble quantities  of  nitrogenous  bodies — gum,  sugar,  oil, 
etc.  In  some  grasses,  these  amount  to  as  much  as 
three,  four,  and  five  per  cent. 

The  time  of  cutting  has  much  to  do  with  the  nutri- 
tive value  of  hay.  While  the  stems  and  leaves  are 
growing  and  green,  they  contain  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  sugar  and  gum,  which,  as  they  ripen,  are,  for 
a  large  part,  transformed  into  dry,  indigestible,  woody 
fibre:  the  remainder  goes  into  the  seeds;  but,  as  every 
farmer  knows,  a  great  portion  of  these  are  lost  from 
the  hay,  before  it  is  fed  out.  Thus,  after  the  grass 
has  attained  its  full  size  and  height,  it  loses  by  delay 
in  cutting,  and  becomes,  as  to  its  stem  and  leaves,  of 
poorer  quality  as  it  grows  riper. 

The  same  occurs  in  the  straw  of  grains, and  in  corn- 
stalks. If  they  are  cut  from  ten  days  to  a  fortnight 
before  the  grain  ripens,  their  quality  for  feeding  is 
greatly  superior  to  what  it  would  have  been  when 
they  were  ripe.  This,  with  the  benefit  to  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  grain  before  mentioned,  constitutes  a 
double  advantage  to  be  gained  by  cutting  early. 

We  have  thus  briefly  adverted  to  the  general  com- 
position of  the  leading  crops,  and  have  shown  the 
principal  points  of  difference.  We  have  seen  that 
root  crops  produce  the  largest  amount  of  nutritive 
matter  per  acre;  and  that  next  to  them  comes  indian 
corn,  then  the  other  grains,  and  the  oil-bearing  seeds. 
The  next  subject  is  the  final  disposal  of  these  crops 
in  feeding. 

It  may  be  of  advantage  here,  to  append  a  table  to 
this  chapter,  giving  a  comparative  view  of  the  more 
common  crops,  as  to  their  organic  part:  such  a  view 
of  the  inorganic  part  has  been  already  given,  in 
preceding  tables.  These  analyses  are  not  to  be 
considered   as   representing   exactly   the    invariable 


COMPOSITION    OF    SEEDS.  137 

composition  of  these  crops,  but  simply  their  general 
character.  The  greater  portion  of  them  are  made  up 
from  Prof.  Johnston's  Lectures;  a  few  are  from  other 
sources.  They  represent  the  composition  of  the  whole 
seeds  in  the  grains,  not  of  the  ground  flour,  from 
which  most  of  the  woody  fibre  or  bran  has  been  sepa- 
rated, and  in  which  consequently  the  percentage  of 
starch  is  much  larger. 

The  composition  of  oats  as  given  here,  is  of  course 
that"  of  the  grain  deprived  of  its  husk. 

This  table  shows,  at  a  glance,  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  four  classes  of  crops  which  it  represents,  as 
to  their  organic  part.  The  range  of  difference  in  the 
composition  of  the  four  grains  as  shown,  is  quite 
trifling,  when  we  consider  their  different  properties  as 
they  are  employed  for  food. 

With  regard  to  meadow  hay,  I  do  not  profess  my- 
self satisfied,  but  give  the  above  as  a  summary  of  the 
best  results  hitherto  obtained.  They  are  from  John- 
ston and  Boussingault,  and  indicate  an  amount  of  nu- 
tritive matter  which  seems  to  me  to  need  confirmation. 
I  have  reduced  their  proportions  somewhat,  and  still 
the  analysis,  as  it  stands,  looks  quite  high  in  some 
points. 

Of  some  most  important  crops  in  certain  portions 
of  this  country,  we  have  as  yet  no  organic  analysis, 
that  are  sufficiently  precise  and  reliable  for  insertion 
here;  such  are  tobacco,  cotton,  and  the  sugar  cane. 
An  examination  of  the  organic  bodies  in  those  crops, 
carried  out  properly,  would  be  of  very  great  benefit 
to  the  whole  country. 


12* 


138 


ORGANIC    SUBSTANCES    IN    COMMON    CROPS, 


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CHAPTER  XII. 

APPLICATION  OF  THE  CROPS  IN  FEEDING. 

Connection  between  the  composition  of  vegetables  and  that  of 
animals :  in  their  organic  part ;  in  their  nitrogenous  substances. 
Differences  between  animal  and  vegetable  food.  Starch;  its 
uses  in  respiration.  Other  substances  which  serve  the  same 
purpose.  Sugar.  Fat.  Applications  of  this  knowledge  in 
feeding  the  young  animal,  and  the  full  grown  animal.  More 
food  required  in  cold  climates.  Food  required  by  the  fattening 
animal.     Benefit  of  cutting  food;  of  cornstalks,  hay,  etc. 

SECTION  I.    OF  THE  CONNECTION  IN  COMPOSITION  BETWE"EN 
THE  PLANT  AND  THE  ANIMAL. 

We  have  hitherto  said  little  as  to  the  direct  con- 
nection between  the  composition  of  the  food,  and  that 
of  the  animal  itself.  That  there  is  such  a  connection, 
must  by  this  time  have  become  clear  to  every  attentive 
reader.  It  is,  however,  even  more  direct;  and  the 
conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  this  directness  are  more 
practical  than  could  have  been  supposed  before  any 
chemical  investigations  were  made.  Something  has 
been  mentioned  in  a  preceding  chapter,  as  to  the  simi- 
larity between  the  inorganic  substances  in  the  plant 
and  those  in  the  animal :  it  was  explained  that  they 
only  differ  in  the  fact,  that  the  ash  from  animal  sub- 
stances contains  at  most  but  a  mere  trace  of  silica, 
a  substance  which  will  be  remembered  as  forming 
so  important  a  part  of  the  ash  from  plants. 

In  the  organic  part  of  animals,  we  find  in  many 
points  a  not  less  striking  coincidence  with  the  organic 
part  of  plants.  It  is  to  be  recollected,  that  in  speak- 
ing of  the  nutritive  properties  of  plants,  much  im- 


140  NITROGENOUS    SUBSTANCES. 

portance  was  ascribed  to  the  bodies  containing  nitro- 
gen, such  as  gluten,  albumen,  legumin,  etc. 

a.  These,  and  a  number  of  others  having  a  similar 
character,  have  been  classed  together  by  some  che- 
mists under  the  name  of  protein  bodies.  They  are, 
in  many  cases,  widely  different  in  form  and  proper- 
ties, but  all  have  about  the  same  proportion  of  nitro- 
gen, and  the  same  general  composition. 

b.  As  we  come  to  examine  the  flesh,  the  blood,  the 
hair,  and  the  organic  part  or  gelatine  of  the  bones, 
we  find  that  from  all  of  them  can  be  extracted  various 
substances  that  contain  nitrogen.  When  these  sub- 
stances are  subjected  to  chemical  analysis,  they  are 
proved  to  belong  to  the  same  class,  and  to  have  a 
composition  agreeing,  with  that  of  the  nitrogenous  or 
nitrogen-containing  bodies  of  the  plant. 

This  is  a  very  striking  fact,  when  we  come  to  con- 
sider its  various  bearings.  The  gluten  of  wheat,  the 
legumin  of  peas  and  beans,  all  the  nitrogenous  bodies 
of  the  other  grains  and  roots,  are  actually  the  same 
thing  as  the  nitrogenous  bodies  contained  in  the  mus- 
cle, the  blood,  the  hair,  the  skin  and  the  bones  of  the 
animal.  The  plant,  then,  is  a  species  of  manufactory, 
where  food  is  prepared  in  such  a  form,  that  the  ani- 
mal can  build  up  its  own  body  with  the  least  possible 
trouble.  These  nitrogenous  substances  are  carried 
by  the  blood  to  each  extremity  of  the  frame,  and  are 
deposited  to  fill  up,  supply,  or  enlarge  every  part,  as 
may  be  needed.  The  fact  has  long  been  established, 
that  our  muscles,  our  hair,  our  skin,  and  even  our 
bones,  are  constantly  undergoing  a  change.  Some  of 
their  particles  are  each  day  carried  away,  and  rejected 
from  the  body  in  various  forms,  their  place  being  sup- 
plied from  the  constituents  of  the  food  eaten.  In  this 
way,  particle  by  particle,  the  whole  body  is  in  time 
renewed. 

When  eating  meat,  we  only  eat  a  more  concen- 


OF    RESPIRATION,  141 

trated  form  of  protein  or  nitrogenous  substance :  all 
that  there  is  containing  nitrogen  in  bread,  is  the  same 
body  as  that  which  we  find  in  meat,  the  only  differ- 
ence being,  that  in  bread,  there  is  much  less  of  it  in 
proportion  to  the  whole  bulk.  It  may  therefore  be 
said  with  truth,  that,  in  eating  bread,  we  are  in  one 
sense  eating  the  same  thing  as  beef  or  mutton. 

a.  If  the  proportion  of  nitrogenous  substance  is 
very  small,  as  in  the  turnip  or  potato,  the  quantity 
eaten  must  be  greatly  increased.  In  order  to  make  as 
much  muscle  in  the  body  as  would  be  added  to  it  by 
five  or  six  ounces  of  meat,  in  its  ordinary  cooked 
form,  it  would  be  necessary  to  eat  at  least  one  hundred 
ounces  of  turnips  or  potatoes  in  their  raw  state. 
When  cooked,  the  proportion  of  water  in  them  would 
probably  be  decreased  somewhat,  and  with  the  season- 
ing employed  to  make  them  palatable,  a  less  quantity 
might  answer. 

SECTION  II.      OF  RESPIRATION  '.     STARCH,  SUGAR,  GUM,  AND 
FAT. 

The  use  of  starch  in  nutrition,  has  already  been 
briefly  alluded  to.  We  have  seen  that  it  is  one  of  the 
most  abundant  of  all  the  ingredients,  in  most  varieties 
of  vegetable  food;  and  the  question  naturally  arises, 
what  is  the  necessity,  in  the  animal  economy,  for  this 
large  quantity  of  such  a  substance. 

a.  Starch,  as  was  explained  in  one  of  the  first 
chapters,  consists  of  carbon  and  water,  or  carbon 
united  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  proportions 
to  form  water.  This  is  brought  into  the  lungs  by  the 
blood,  after  digestion,  and  there,  or  afterward  in  the 
blood,  undergoes  what  may  be  considered  a  species 
of  combustion. 

b.  The  carbon  of  the  starch  unites  with  oxygen, 
and  forms  carbonic  acid.     This  accounts  for  the  in- 


142  RESPIRATION  A  KIND  OF  COMBUSTION, 

creased  quantity  which,  as  will  be  remembered,  is 
found  in  the  air  after  it  has  passed  through  the  lungs. 
The  lungs  are  full  of  little  cavities,  so  that  the  blood 
may  come  in  contact  with  as  much  of  the  air  as  pos- 
sible at  once,  and  absorb  large  quantities  of  oxygen. 

c.  Another  result  of  this  decomposition  or  burning, 
is  water;  so  that  we  have  here  carbonic  acid  and  wa- 
ter for  the  final  product,  as  in  the  ordinary  burning  of 
wood  or  coal.  We  do  not  understand  how  it  happens, 
but  the  same  effect  seems  to  be  produced  in  the  lungs 
as  when  carbon  is  actually  burned  by  a  flame;  its 
uniting  with  oxygen  and  forming  carbonic  acid,  heats 
the  body  as  an  internal  flame  would  do. 

Every  person  knows  how  difficult  it  is  for  a  hungry 
man  to  keep  warm  in  cold  weather,  and  how  soon  a 
full  meal  restores  the  animal  heat.  The  quicker  we 
breathe,  the  more  food  or  starch  is  burned;  thus  strong 
exertions  always  heat  us,  because  they  compel  us  to 
breathe  faster.  The  larger  portion  of  the  starch,  then, 
which  is  received  with  our  food,  passes  off  in  the 
shape  of  carbonic  acid  and  water. 

In  warm  weather  our  appetites  are  less  than  in 
cold,  because  the  outward  temperature  is  such  as  re- 
quires less  action  of  the  lungs  to  retain  the  warmth 
of  the  body,  and  consequently  involves  a  smaller  con- 
sumption of  food.  Nothing  reduces  the  flesh  and 
strength  so  rapidly  as  cold  and  hunger  combined,  for 
then  all  the  resources  of  the  body  are  most  speedily 
exhausted.  Deprivation  of  food,  while  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  corresponds  nearly  with  that  of  the 
body,  may  be  borne  with  comparative  impunity,  and 
with  little  emaciation,  for  a  period  that  would  in  the 
first  case  have  been  fatal. 

There  are  other  substances  in  our  ordinary  food, 
which  may  serve  the  same  purpose  as  starch,  in  keep- 
ing up  the  heat  of  the  body. 

a.  One  of  these  is  sugar,  as  indeed  might  be  ex- 


SUPPORTED  BY  STARCH,  SUGAR,  ETC.      143 

pectetl  from  the  identity  of  its  composition  with  that 
of  starch;  it  also  consisting  of  carbon,  with  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  in  the  proportions  to  form  water.  Sugar, 
when  not  taken  in  too  large  quantities,  must  be  con- 
sidered a  wholesome  food,  particularly  as  supplying 
material  for  keeping  up  the  heat  of  the  body.  Some 
authors  have  condemned  it,  because  animals  would 
not  thrive  on  it  alone;  but  this  is  no  argument  at  all. 
The  same  result  would  follow  feeding  upon  any  other 
single  article,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  The 
animal  requires  and  must  have  a  mixed  food,  or  it 
will  not  thrive. 

b.  Fatty  and  oily  substances  have  the  same  function 
to  perform;  they  also  consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  and,  in  animals  that  do  not  eat  ve- 
getables, are  undoubtedly  the  chief  source  by  which 
carbon  is  supplied  to  the  lungs.  When  food  fails,  fat 
from  various  parts  of  the  body  is  first  used  to  support 
respiration  :  hence  results  the  remarkable  emaciation 
which  appears  after  long  abstinence,  or  during  star- 
vation. 

Fat  is  extremely  useful  in  the  body  for  various  pur- 
poses. It  lubricates  and  smooths  the  joints,  the  mus- 
cles, and  the  tendons,  so  that  they  play  easily  and  freely ; 
it  fills  up  hollows,  making  the  body  plump  and  rounded, 
instead  of  angular  and  full  of  disagreeable  cavities, 
as  it  would  otherwise  be.  This  necessary  part  of  the 
animal,  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  oily  and  fatty  sub- 
stances in  the  food.  It  seems  clear  that,  under  certain 
circumstances,  both  starch  and  sugar  may  and  do  pro- 
duce fat.  This  is  partially  the  case  when  the  food  con- 
sists entirely  of  potatoes,  or  when  it  is  nothing  but 
apples.  Still  we  see  that  those  varieties  of  food  which 
contain  most  oil,  fatten  animals  quickest. 

a.  Indian  corn  is  an  instance  of  this :  linseed  cake 
is  a  still  more  striking  one.  Such  food  not  only  sup- 
plies the  usual  daily  waste  of  the  body,  but  causes 
an   accumulation  and   increase  of  fat.     The  natural 


144  PHOSPHATE  OF  LIME  INDISPENSABLE. 

supply  of  ready  made  oil  or  fat  thus  furnished,  suits 
the  animal  better  than  the  conversion  of  starch  or  su- 
gar into  fat,  as  being  much  easier,  more  natural,  and 
more  readily  accomplished. 

b.  The  organic  food  must  then,  in  order  to  meet  all 
the  "wants  of  the  animal,  contain  starch,  sugar  or 
gum,  fatty  matter  or  oil,  and  nitrogenous  compounds. 
These  are  all  organic  bodies.  The  first  three  are 
needed  to  furnish  carbon,  to  be  consumed  in  respira- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  keeping  up  the  animal  heat, 
and  also  for  making  fat  in  case  of  necessity.  The  oil 
is  of  value  for  forming  fat  directly,  and  the  nitroge- 
nous substance  for  the  production  of  muscle,  carti- 
lage, etc. 

c.  Among  the  inorganic  parts  of  the  food,  phos- 
phate of  lime  should  be  prominent,  in  order  that  the 
animal  may  form  its  bones  strong,  and  of  full  size. 
Potash  and  soda  should  also  be  present  in  considera- 
ble quantity.  I  mention  phosphate  of  lime  particu- 
larly, because  no  other  phosphate  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  making  bone.  Experiments  have  been  tried 
by  feeding  birds  with  food  containing  little  or  none 
of  this,  but  an  abundance  of  other  phosphates.  They 
gradually  became  thin  and  died,  and  it  was  found  that 
their  bones  were  all  wasted  away  and  weak,  for  want 
of  the  necessary  material  to  build  them  up. 

SECTION  III.     OF    FEEDING    THE    YOUNG    AND    GROWING 
ANIMAL. 

We  see  from  the  facts  already  stated,  that  with  the 
knowledge  now  gained  upon  this  subject,  feeding  may 
become  a  science  :  we  may  modify  our  food  according 
to  the  end  that  we  desire  to  attain. 

Let  us  consider  first  the  young  and  growing  animal. 
What  is  the  system  too  often  pursued  ?  The  best  hay, 
the  best  shelter,  the  best  litter,  all  of  the  grain  and 
roots,  are  bestowed  upon  the  working  or  the  fattening 


FEEDING  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS.  145 

animals.  The  young  ones  have  poor  shelter,  coarse 
bog  hay  and  straw  for  fodder,  and  little  care  of  any 
description.  In  the  main,  they  are  left  to  shift  for 
themselves,  with  poor  food  and  imperfect  accommo- 
dations, frequently  with  no  accommodations  at  all, 
unless  the  warm  side  of  an  old  stack  of  bog  hay,  or 
bleached  cornstalks,  can  be  so  called.  As  they  crowd 
together  under  its  shelter  from  the  wind,  and  eat  some 
of  the  hay  or  stalks  to  keep  from  starving,  the  owner 
congratulates  himself  on  the  saving  of  food  that  he 
is  effecting.  I  would  ask  him  to  consider  whether 
this  is  really  the  best  possible  practice,  and  think  it 
will  not  be  difficult  to  show  that  every  hour  of  this 
fancied  gain,  is  in  reality  a  positive  loss.  It  can 
be  made  evident  from  the  following  facts.  The  young 
animal  is,  or  should  be,  growing  rapidly;  its  muscles 
should  be  developing  and  increasing  in  size;  its  bones 
growing  and  consolidating;  its  whole  frame  enlarging 
from  day  to  day,  in  a  rapid  and  almost  perceptible 
manner.  This  is  not  to  be  effected  by  such  treatment 
as  that  described  above.  The  real  need  at  this  time 
is  for  remarkably  strengthening  and  nutritious  food  — 
a  food  that  should  contain  a  large  proportion  of  nitro- 
gen in  some  form,  so  as  to  increase  the  muscles;  and 
of  phosphates,  to  strengthen  and  enlarge  the  bones. 

The  daily  waste  of  the  body,  is  proportionally  much 
larger  in  the  young  animal  than  in  the  old;  for,  with 
a  more  active  circulation,  all  parts  of  the  body  change 
their  constituent  particles  more  rapidly.  Quite 
young  animals,  it  is  said,  often  renew  their  whole 
bodies  in  the  course  of  a  single  year.  Beside  this 
larger  waste,  there  is  the  daily  increase  in  bulk  of 
every  part  to  be  attended  to ;  the  food,  therefore, 
should  be  nutritious  enough  for  both  purposes. 

a.  In  England,  young  calves  often  have   a  small 

portion  of  linseed  meal  fed  to  them  with  milk,  this 

meal  being  rich  both  in  nitrogen  and  in  phosphates. 

Fat  is  not  of  so  much  consequence,  unless  in  feeding 

13 


146  FEEDING  GROWN  ANIMALS, 

calves  for  market.  It  has  been  suggested  that  bone 
meal,  ground  fine,  might  be  found  good  for  young 
animals,  as  a  portion  of  their  allowance;  but  I  am 
not  aware  if  it  has  ever  been  tried  with  success.  It 
is  said  that  the  Arabs  make  use  of  it  for  food  in  time 
of  scarcity.  Bean  meal  or  peas  meal,  in  small  quanti- 
ties, makes  an  excellent  mixture  with  milk. 

The  natural  milk  of  the  mother  combines  all  of  the 
properties  which  I  have  mentioned,  as  will  be  seen 
in  an  ensuing  chapter;  but  it  is  not  always  practica- 
ble or  profitable  to  feed  with  milk  entirely. 

From  the  composition  of  the  grains  previously 
given,  it  is  obvious  that  all  of  them  are  valuable  food 
for  young  stock.  Indian  corn  being  cheapest,  and  on 
the  whole  best  adapted  for  the  purpose,  is  most  used 
in  this  country. 

Such  directions  as  these,  contrast  somewhat  strongly 
with  the  state  of  things  described  first;  where  the  ani- 
mal, shivering  in  the  winter's  cold,  was  compelled  to 
exist  on  food  entirely  unsuited  to  its  wants,  and 
scarcely  sufficient  to  supply  material  for  keeping  up 
the  heat  of  its  body.  Let  any  reasonable  man  decide 
which  system  will  produce  the  best  results. 

SECTION  IV.     OF  FEEDING  THE  FULL-GROWN  ANIMAL. 

The  full-grown  animal  has  its  bones,  its  muscles, 
and  all  of  its  parts  fully  developed  and  matured. 
That  which  it  needs  in  its  food,  is  the  material  to 
make  good  the  daily  waste  of  its  body.  This  waste 
is  not  inconsiderable,  especially  when  the  animal  un- 
dergoes much  labor  and  severe  exertion. 

a.  A  man  consumes  in  respiration  alone,  from  six 
to  eight  ounces  of  carbon  in  each  twenty-four  hours. 
In  order  to  supply  this,  he  must  eat  about  one  pound 
of  starch,  sugar,  gum,  fat,  or  other  food  rich  in  carbon. 
Then  there  are  the  phosphates,  the  nitrogenous  sub- 


ADAPTATION  OF  FOOD  TO  CLIMATE.       147 

stances,  the  saline  bodies,  the  fat,  etc.,  which  will 
require  a  number  of  ounces  more. 

b.  In  very  cold  climates,  the  amount  of  necessary 
food,  especially  of  that  which  furnishes  carbon  to 
keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body,  is  vastly  augmented. 
The  Esquimaux,  and  other  savage  tribes  living  in  the 
arctic  regions,  eat  quantities  of  fat,  tallow,  and  oil, 
which  would  be  considered  quite  incredible,  were  it 
not  for  the  concurring  testimony  of  numerous  travel- 
lers. Several  pounds  of  such  food  at  a  time,  a  dozen 
or  two  of  tallow  candles  for  instance,  or  half  a  gallon 
of  whale  blubber,  seems  to  scarcely  satisfy  their  ap- 
petites; and  this  enormous  eating  appears  not  to  pro- 
duce the  slightest  ill  eifect,  as  it  does  no  more  in 
that  climate  than  keep  up  the  requisite  animal  heat, 
in  addition  to  supplying  the  waste  of  the  body. 

In  warm  weather,  the  quantity  of  food  needed  to 
supply  strength  for  the  same  amount  of  exertion,  is,  as 
all  know,  greatly  reduced ;  the  appetite  often  disap- 
pears almost  entirely,  and  yet  there  is  no  feeling  of 
weakness  in  undergoing  labor.  The  temperature  of 
the  air  is  so  elevated,  that  comparatively  a  very  small 
portion  of  the  food  is  used  in  keeping  up  the  animal 
heat.  In  the  next  chapter  we  will  consider  the  par- 
ticular bearing  of  these  facts  on  feeding. 

SECTION  V.     OF  THE  FATTENING  ANIMAL  AND  ITS  FOOD. 

Hitherto  we  have  spoken  only  of  the  young  or 
growing,  and  of  the  full  grown  animal ;  it  now 
remains  to  say  something  of  the  fattening  animal. 
Here  the  object  of  feeding  is  changed :  it  is  not  in- 
tended to  increase  the  size  and  weight  of  its  bones  and 
frame,  for  these  have  attained  their  full  development; 
their  daily  waste  is  to  be  fully  replaced,  and  in  addi- 
tion there  is  to  be  the  greatest  possible  amount  of 
flesh  and  fat  accumulated  upon  them  in  the  shortest 
possible  time,  and  this  with  the  least  necessary  cost. 


148  FOOD  FOR  FATTENING  ANIMALS. 

Here  is  clearly  a  new  class  of  food  needed,  con- 
taining not  only  phosphates,  saline  substances,  starch, 
etc.,  as  before,  but  also  an  increased  proportion  of 
protein  bodies,  and  above  all  an  abundance  of  oily  or 
fatty  matters.  The  vegetable  fats  or  oils,  as  has  been 
said,  do  not  greatly  differ  in  their  composition  from  the 
animal  fats,  some  of  them,  in  fact,  being  almost  iden- 
tical :  of  course,  then,  the  transformations  necessary 
to  convert  them  into  the  various  parts  of  the  body  are 
easily  accomplished. 

It  has  been  argued  by  some  scientific  men,  that 
these  vegetable  oils  are  really  of  not  so  much  import- 
ance as  is  here  ascribed  to  them :  they  say  that  the 
chief  part  of  the  fat  in  our  domestic  animals,  is  derived 
from  the  starch  and  sugar  contained  in  their  food. 
The  fact  already  mentioned,  that  both  of  these  sub- 
stances may  be  converted  into  fat,  and  doubtless  are 
so  converted  to  a  large  extent,  might  seem  to  coun- 
tenance such  views,  had  we  not  direct  practical  evi- 
dence that  the  vegetable  food  which  is  most  oily  in 
its  nature,  is  found  to  be  most  valuable  in  fattening. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  instance  indian  meal,  oil  cake, 
linseed  jelly,  etc.,  as  compared,  weight  for  weight,  in 
feeding,  with  rye,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  or  turnips. 
All  experience  shows  that  the  first  named  varieties  of 
food  are  by  far  the  best. 

Starch,  sugar,  and  gum,  especially  the  two  latter, 
unquestionably  aid  materially  in  fattening,  and  will 
fatten  where  there  is  little  else  given,  but  at  the  same 
time  not  so  speedily  or  economically  as  more  oily  food 
would  have  done.  A  small  portion  of  this  latter  food, 
mixed  with  larger  quantities  of  the  more  watery  or 
less  concentrated  nutriment,  is  found  an  extremely 
good  way  of  feeding.  Thus,  in  England,  for  an  ox, 
as  many  turnips  as  the  animal  will  eat,  are  given,  with 
four  or  five  pounds  of  oil  cake  per  day.  They  also  use 
linseed  jelly,  made  by  boiling  the  linseed  in  water,  and 


A  CUTTING  MACHINE  SAVES  HAY.         149 

then  mixing  with  cut  straw  and  hay  :  when  it  cools, 
a  stiff,  firm  jelly  is  formed,  which  may  be  turned  out 
in  masses.  This  mixture  might  well  be  tried  in  this 
country. 

a.  It  is  now  becoming  the  practice  here  to  use  in- 
dian  meal  for  mixing  with  moistened  cut  stuff,  and 
there  is  great  advantage  in  so  doing;  an  advantage 
in  the  readiness  and  relish  with  which  the  animal 
takes  its  food,  and  also  of  course  in  the  effect  upon  its 
growth. 

A  cutting  machine  saves  much  hay,  enables  the 
farmer  to  consume  a  large  portion  of  straw  by  mixing 
with  hay,  and  at  the  same  time  to  promote  the  fatten- 
ing of  his  stock,  by  the  greater  ease  with  which  they 
eat  and  digest  food  already  partially  prepared  for 
their  stomachs.  I  shall  soon  mention  why  it  is  that 
every  thing  which  saves  labor  to  the  fattening  animal, 
promotes  the  increase  of  its  bulk.  Hay  for  such 
purposes  should  be  mown  before  quite  matured,  as, 
for  the  reasons  explained  in  a  previous  chapter,  it 
contains  so  much  more  gum,  sugar,  etc.,  than  when 
allowed  to  stand  till  fully  ripe.  The  same  practice 
is  good  with  straw.  We  have  already  seen  that  the 
grain  is  heavier  and  better  in  quality  for  early  cut- 
ting; and  experience  shows  that  the  straw  is  not  less 
superior  for  feeding  purposes.  Some  kinds,  cut  early 
and  carefully  cured,  are  nearly  equal  to  certain  varie- 
ties of  hay,  and  even  superior  to  most  of  that  which 
has  been  suffered  to  ripen  and  bleach  till  it  is  little 
better  than  a  mass  of  dry  sticks. 

Indian  cornstalks,  when  cut  as  above,  and  well 
cured,  make  a  most  admirable  fodder.  They  are  then 
sweet  and  nutritious  in  an  eminent  degree  ;  when  cut 
fine,  and  mixed  with  indian  meal,  are  eaten  by  cattle 
with  much  avidity,  and  eaten  clean,  butts  and  all. 
Some  farmers  think  that  really  good  stalks  are  worth 
about  as  much  as  the  best  hay.  When  we  consider 
13* 


150  EARLY  CUTTING  OF  CORN  FODDER. 

the  weight  of  them  to  be  obtained  from  an  acre  of 
heavy  corn,  they  are  probably  more  than  equal,  taking 
into  account  the  respective  quantities  per  acre. 

In  many  parts  of  this  country,  cornstalks  are  ne- 
glected, or,  if  carted  at  all,  are  only  thrown  into  the 
barnyard  whole.  Their  butts  and  stalks  come  out  un- 
decayed  in  the  spring,  making  the  manure  difficult  to 
handle  or  spread,  and  worse  still  to  plough  under.  We 
see  hundreds  of  fields  every  autumn,  where  the  stalks 
stand  bleached  and  white  till  just  before  snow  comes, 
when  perhaps  they  are  carted  into  the  yard  as  just  de- 
scribed, or  stacked  for  the  benefit  of  such  unfortunate 
young  stock  as  may  be  starved  into  the  idea  that  they 
are  a  tolerable  article  of  food. 

When  made  into  small  stacks  in  the  field,  with  the 
butts  well  out  so  as  to  let  air  in,  and  the  tops  tied  to- 
gether, they  dry  green,  and  sweet,  and  tender,  so  that 
all  stock  relish  them  highly.  Some  farmers  leave  the 
stalks  of  one  hill  uncut,  and  gather  those  of  eight  to 
sixteen  others  around  it.  The  centre  hill  gives  stabi- 
lity to  the  stack,  and  prevents  it  from  blowing  over. 


151 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

FEEDING   (CONTINUED). 

Soiling  cattle,  or  feeding  with  green  food.  Shelter  in  winter  ne- 
cessary: its  influence  on  the  economy  of  food.  Effects  of  ex- 
ercise, of  close  confinement,  of  warmth.  Of  cut  and  cooked 
food;  reasons  for  their  efficacy.  Linseed  jelly.  Soured  food; 
probable  change  which  takes  place  in  souring.  Differences  in 
manures  from  different  classes  of  animals  :  from  the  young 
animal ;  from  the  milch  cow  ;  from  full  grown,  and  from  fat- 
tening animals.  Effect  of  feeding  various  classes  in  deterio- 
rating pastures. 

SECTION  I.       ON    THE    SOILING   OF    STOCK. 

The  practice  of  feeding  various  crops  to  cattle, 
while  they  are  green;  or  of  soiling,  as  it  is  otherwise 
termed,  has  excited  some  attention  of  late  years,  and 
it  is  therefore  proper  to  devote  a  few  words  to  it  here. 
The  advocates  of  such  a  course  contend :  1.  That  the 
food  from  an  acre  goes  farther;  2.  That  the  animals 
thrive  better;  3.  That  their  manure  is  more  perfectly 
preserved. 

a.  This  latter  position  is  unquestionably  a  true  one; 
the  manure  being  under  cover,  is  not  exposed  to  eva- 
poration or  washing,  and  is  without  doubt  not  only 
more  valuable,  but  is  retained  in  greater  bulk. 

b.  It  is  probably  true,  also,  that  the  green  food  from 
an  acre  goes  much  farther  than  the  same  amount  would 
do  when  dried.  I  suppose  that  it  is  impossible  to 
make  hay  or  fodder  from  any  green  crops,  without  to 
a  considerable  degree  changing  their  composition, 
thus  rendering  them,  to  a  certain  extent,  hard  and  in- 
digestible; some  parts,  which  before  were  soluble, 
becoming  in  drying  nearly  insoluble. 


152  -        SOILING  OF  STOCK. 

c.  As  to  the  animals  thriving:  better,  that  is  a  point 
which  I  consider  as  not  yet  fully  decided.  It  is  a 
question  if,  in  our  extremely  hot  climate,  animals  do 
so  well  during  the  warm  weather  of  summer,  when  con- 
fined in  close  sheds,  pining  for  liberty  and  green  fields. 
I  think  that  we  require  extended  experience,  and  many 
comparative  experiments,  before  this  question  can  be 
regarded  as  finally  settled. 

A  modification  of  the  system  would  without  doubt 
be  successful  in  certain  situations,  such  as  where  the 
ordinary  pasture  would  admit  of  being  partly  culti- 
vated, or  had  some  arable  field  close  at  hand,  in  which 
might  be  grown  indian  corn  sown  thick,  heavy  crops 
of  clover,  or  some  other  form  of  green  fodder.  A 
portion  of  this,  cut  twice  a  day,  and  fed  out  upon  the 
pasture,  would  have  an  excellent  effect,  both  on  the 
condition  of  the  animals,  and  in  the  improvement  of 
the  pasture.  Green  food  given  in  this  way,  keeps 
working  cattle  in  good  order,  and  dairy  cows  in  rich 
milk,  through  the  hot  months.  All  of  the  crop  is 
available,  no  part  of  it  being  lost  by  the  trampling 
of  stock.  One  man  with  a  scythe  can  cut  enough  in 
a  few  minutes,  morning  and  evening,  to  supply  a  very 
considerable  herd. 


SECTION  II.       ON    THE  KEEPING  OF    STOCK  DURING  WINTER. 

The  place  in  which  stock  is  kept  during  winter  has 
a  much  more  important  effect,  not  only  upon  their 
condition,  but  upon  the  quantity  of  food  that  they  eat, 
than  is  usually  imagined.  Suppose  it  to  be  in  an  un- 
sheltered yard,  or  on  a  hill-side,  open  to  cold  winds 
and  driving  storms;  from  what  has  been  already  said, 
we  know  that  in  such  a  situation,  the  action  of  the 
lungs  will  be  increased  as  the  temperature  of  the  body 
decreases.  This  will  call  for  an  augmented  supply 
of  carbon  from  the  food,  using  up  the  starch,  sugar, 


FEEDING  ANIMALS  IN  THE  DARK.  153 

oil,  etc.,  which  would  otherwise  have  gone  to  cover 
the  frame  with  fat.  Thus  a  large  portion  of  the  food 
is  consumed  or  burned  in  the  lungs  and  blood,  to  keep 
the  body  warm.  As  the  animal  grows  poorer  under 
this  condition  of  things,  it  becomes  less  and  less  able 
to  resist  the  cold,  so  that  at  last  about  all  of  its  nutri- 
ment is  used  up,  in  the  action  necessary  to  keep  it 
from  freezing. 

The  animal  that  has  a  sheltered  yard  with  plenty 
of  litter,  with  sheds  facing  to  the  south,  for  the  day,  and 
good  stables  or  other  shelter  for  the  night,  is  con- 
stantly warm  and  comfortable;  for  these  reasons  re- 
spiration does  not  need  to  be  so  rapid,  and  the  larger 
part  of  its  food  goes  to  the  support  and  increase  of  its 
body.  Under  such  circumstances,  we  might  expect  a 
smaller  quantity  of  nourishment  to  produce  a  greater 
increase  of  weight,  and  this  is  found  to  be  actually  the 
case. 

The  amount  of  exercise  taken,  has  also  much  influ- 
ence. When  animals  are  fattening,  the  less  exercise 
of  a  violent  nature  that  they  take,  the  better;  for  every 
exertion  increases  the  depth  and  frequency  of  breath- 
ing, and  so  of  course  makes  a  draft  upon  the  food. 
The  more  tranquil  and  quiet  the  state  then,  in  which 
the  animal  is  kept,  the  more  readily  will  fat  accumu- 
late. 

a.  This  is  shown  by  the  well  known  fact,  that  tur- 
kies,  pigeons,  and  other  fowls,  when  shut  up  in  the 
dark,  will  fatten  with  very  great  rapidity.  In  such  a 
situation  they  are  kept  perfectly  still;  there  being  no 
object  to  distract  their  attention,  and  make  them  rest- 
less, they  have  nothing  to  attend  to  but  eating,  sleep- 
ing, and  digesting. 

Some  experiments  have  also  been  made,  on  the  ad- 
vantage of  fattening  animals  by  feeding  in  confine- 
ment, as  contrasted  with  others  at  liberty.  In  Prof. 
Johnston's  Lectures,  are  given  the  results  of  an  experi- 


154  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

ment  made  upon  sheep,  by  selecting  those  of  nearly 
equal  weight,  and  feeding  for  four  months  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances.  One  was  entirely  unsheltered, 
another  in  an  open  shed,  another  still  in  a  close  shed 
and  in  the  dark.  The  food  was  alike,  1  lb.  of  oats 
each  per  day,  and  as  many  turnips  as  they  chose  to 
eat. 

a.  The  first  sheep  consumed  1912  lbs.  of  turnips, 
the  second  1394  lbs.,  and  the  third  886  lbs.,  or  less 
than  half  oi  those  eaten  by  the  first. 

b.  The  first  one  gained  23^  lbs.  in  weight,  the  se- 
cond 27J  lbs.,  and  the  third  28£  lbs. 

c  For  every  100  lbs.  of  turnips  eaten,  the  first 
gained  in  weight  1|  lb.,  the  second  2  lbs.,  the  third 
3TV  lbs.  This  is  a  most  striking  example  of  the  effect 
of  warmth  and  shelter;  the  one  kept  in  a  close  shed 
and  in  the  dark,  eat  less  than  half  as  much,  and  gained 
more  than  the  unsheltered  one. 

Another  remarkable  instance  is  given  by  Prof.  John- 
ston. Twenty  sheep  were  kept  in  the  open  field,  and 
twenty  others  of  nearly  equal  weight,  kept  under  a 
comfortable  shed.  They  were  fed  alike  for  the  three 
winter  months,  having  each  per  day  ^  lb.  linseed 
cake,  ^  pint  barley,  with  a  little  hay  and  salt,  and  as 
many  turnips  as  they  wished  to  eat.  "  The  sheep  in 
the  field  consumed  all  the  barley  and  oil  cake,  and 
about  19  lbs.  of  turnips  each  per  day,  so  long  as  the 
trial  lasted,  and  increased  in  the  whole  512  lbs.  Those 
under  the  shed  consumed  at  first  as  much  food  as  the 
others,  but  after  the  third  week  they  eat  2  lbs.  each  of 
turnips  less  per  day;  and  in  the  ninth  week  2  lbs. 
less  again,  or  only  15  lbs.  per  day.  Of  the  linseed 
cake  they  also  eat  about  |  less  than  the  other  lot,  and 
yet  increased  in  weight  790  lbs.,  or  278  lbs.  more 
than  the  others." 

This  too  was  with  nearly  200  lbs.  less  of  oil  cake, 
and  about  2  tons  less  of  turnips,  according  to  the  above 


SHOULD  BE  SHELTERED  IN  WINTER.  155 

statement.  Are  not  such  facts  as  these  worthy  of  at- 
tention? Here  it  is  shown  by  practical  experience  that 
theory  is  correct;  that  when  animals  are  unsheltered 
and  cold,  they  eat  more  and  gain  less,  because  so  large 
a  portion  of  their  food  is  used  up  in  keeping  them 
warm. 

In  the  course  of  a  very  few  years,  such  differences 
as  these,  to  a  farmer  who  kept  much  stock,  would  save 
the  entire  price  of  good,  substantial  sheds.  The  com- 
fort and  warmth  of  animals,  should  be  a  primary  con- 
sideration in  the  construction  of  sheds  and  stables  of 
every  description.  It  is  quite  easy,  by  a  little  study, 
to  unite  these  important  requisites  with  convenience, 
and  with  economy  of  time  in  feeding.  When  build- 
ings are  well  regulated  in  these  respects,  a  man  can 
do  much  more  work,  and  do  it  better,  than  where  he 
has  to  accomplish  every  thing  at  a  disadvantage,  as 
is  the  case  in  too  many  establishments.  From  the  re- 
sults hitherto  obtained  by  feeding  in  the  dark,  and  in 
close  buildings,  it  would  be  well  to  try  this  system  on 
a  large  scale.  Many  persons  partially  adopt  it  by 
using  folding  shutters,  which  render  the  light  of  day 
quite  dim  and  indistinct.  Where  many  animals  are 
in  the  same  building,  care  should  be  taken  to  ensure 
good  ventilation. 

SECTION    III      OF    THE    FORM    IN    WHICH    FOOD    IS    TO    BE 
GIVEN. 

The  state  in  which  food  is  given,  has  an  important 
bearing  on  the  effect  which  it  produces,  in  sustaining 
or  fattening  the  animal.  I  have  already  spoken  of 
cutting  hay,  straw,  and  stalks,  and  have  explained  the 
advantages  which  result  from  the  practice.  On  small 
farms,  all  that  is  necessary  may  be  cut  by  hand  in  an 
hour  at  night  and  morning;  and  where  the  stock  is 
large,  there  is  always,  or  ought  to  be,  a  horse  power; 


156      PREPARATION  OF  THE  FOOD  OF  STOCK. 

by  connecting  this  with  a  cutter,  the  work  may  be 
done  with  equal  ease. 

For  milch  cows,  this  cut  -stuff  is  as  advantageous 
as  for  fattening  animals.  If  wet  a  little  previous  to 
feeding,  and  indian  meal  or  other  ground  feed  sifted 
over  in  small  quantity,  the  cows  will  eat  it  with  great 
relish,  and  the  effect  of  the  meal  will  be  quite  appa- 
rent in  the  richness  of  their  milk.  Some  such  food  is 
in  fact  necessary  to  supply  the  nitrogenous  substances, 
the  butter,  and  the  phosphates  which  milk  contains 
so  largely. 

a.  A  half  bushel  of  sugar  beets,  parsnips,  or  car- 
rots, to  each  cow  daily,  will  be  found  an  excellent  ad- 
dition to  their  food;  it  gives  sweetness  and  richness 
to  the  milk,  making  the  butter  of  a  yellow  color  even 
in  winter.  If  these  roots  are  cut  by  a  root-slicer,  they 
will  be  eaten  cleaner  and  more  easily  digested,  as  the 
animal  can  then  without  difficulty  grind  up  each 
piece  separately. 

It  is  with  milch  cows  as  with  fattening  animals^ 
quiet  and  warmth  affect  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
milk,  as  much  as  they  do  the  accumulation  of  fat  All 
that  the  cow  uses  in  breathing  after  exertion,  or  to 
keep  herself  warm,  is  so  much  withdrawn  from  the 
milk.  Here  then, also,  good  shelter  and  comfortable 
feeding  places  are  the  best  economy.  In  fact,  this 
rule  applies  to  every  class  of  stock.  From  what  was 
said  in  the  last  chapter,  with  regard  to  young  and 
growing  animals  when  exposed  to  cold,  it  is  clear 
that  they  as  well  as  others  need  shelter  and  warmth, 
that  their  food  may  be  of  the  greatest  benefit  in  in- 
creasing their  growth. 

Cooked  food,  in  various  forms,  is  found  to  be  of 
great  value  in  feeding.  The  same  quantity  will,  in 
many  cases,  go  farther  cooked  than  raw.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  of  many  roots,  as  potatoes,  carrots,  etc.; 
also,  of  every  kind  of  meal,  of  pumpkins,  squashes, 


RAW  AND  COOKED  FOOD  COMPARED.       157 

apples,  etc.  When  cooked,  the  animal  eats  its  food 
more  readily,  and  a  smaller  quantity  goes  farther. 
This  does  not  apply  to  all  kinds  of  animals.  Accord- 
ing to  some  experiments,  horses,  for  instance,  throve 
little,  if  any,  better  on  cooked  food  than  on  raw.  In 
some  of  the  trials,  the  raw  food  seemed  to  have  the 
advantage.  This  is  not,  however,  to  be  regarded  as  a 
general  rule. 

It  has  been  said  that  starch  may  be  changed  into 
sugar  and  gum  in  various  ways  :  the  application  of 
heat  is  one  of  these  ways;  and  in  cooking  food,  this 
change  by  means  of  heat  doubtless  takes  place  to  a 
very  considerable  extent.  The  starch  is  not  soluble 
in  water,  while  the  sugar,  dextrine,  and  gum,  thus 
formed  during  cooking,  are  eminently  so  :  the  cooked 
food  is  therefore  more  easily  dissolved  and  digested 
in  the  stomach  of  the  animal,  and  is  moreover  eaten 
without  any  exertion.  This  ease  and  quickness  of 
digestion,  seems  to  have  the  same  effect  upon  many 
classes  of  animals  in  hastening  their  growth,  that  has 
been  exemplified  in  preceding  chapters,  with  regard 
to  some  powerful  and  quite  soluble  manures  applied 
to  plants.  It  was  shown  that  easy  solubility,  and 
therefore  quickness  of  action,  were  more  important 
than  quantity;  for  instance,  that  two  or  three  bushels 
of  bones,  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid,  would  benefit  a 
crop  more  than  sixty  or  seventy  bushels  of  whole 
bones.  So  with  the  animal;  a  small  portion  of  food, 
which  it  can  at  once  eat,  digest,  and  make  into  its 
own  bones,  muscle,  and  fat,  is  worth  more  than  a  large 
quantity  of  some  kind  which  it  can  only  eat  with  dif- 
ficulty, and  digest  slowly.  Turnips  and  parsnips  are 
usually  fed  raw;  but  potatoes,  pumpkins,  apples,  and 
meal,  are  varieties  of  food  which  are  almost  always 
better  to  be  cooked,  where  it  is  practicable. 

Every  farmer  should  endeavor  to  have  a  cellar  fitted 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  roots,  where  they  would 
13 


158  FEEDING  WITH  LINSEED  JELLY. 

neither  freeze,  nor  be  so  warm  as  to  sprout.  It  is 
better  to  have  the  temperature  a  little  too  cold,  than 
a  little  too  warm.  In  the  latter  case  decay  will 
speedily  commence,  and  toward  spring,  when  the  roots 
begin  to  sprout,  their  value  will  rapidly  decrease;  all 
their  more  valuable  and  soluble  parts  being  abstracted 
by  the  shoot,  leaving  little  more  behind  than  woody 
fibre  and  water. 

In  England,  a  system  of  feeding  with  a  species  of 
linseed  jelly,  has  been  very  highly  spoken  of  during 
the  last  few  years.  Linseed  is  thoroughly  boiled 
in  water,  1  lb.  to  2  gallons;  and  wrhen  the  water 
is  sufficiently  concentrated,  the  whole  is  poured  into 
little  boxes;  then  as  much  fine-cut  straw  as  conve- 
nient is  added,  and  the  whole  thoroughly  stirred  toge- 
ther. As  the  mixture  cools,  the  linseed  forms  the 
contents  of  each  box  into  a  mass  of  stiff  jelly,  capa- 
ble of  being  turned  out  and  of  retaining  its  shape  :  it 
is  fed  to  cattle  in  that  state.  This  is  an  extremely 
nutritious,  and  also  a  very  fattening  food.  Sometimes 
a  little  bean  or  peas  meal  is  also  stirred  in;  either  of 
these  make  the  compound  richer  in  nitrogen,  and 
therefore  better  adapted  to  the  formation  of  muscle. 
The  results  of  this  system  of  feeding  have  been  en- 
tirely satisfactory,  so  far  as  we  have  any  reports  of 
its  success. 

Cooked  food,  allowed  to  sour,  has  been  found  in 
many  cases  remarkably  fattening,  particularly  as  fed 
to  swine.  The  souring  should,  of  course,  not  be  al- 
lowed to  go  on  to  the  extent  of  strong  fermentation. 
It  is  probable  that  the  efficacy  of  this  soured  food,  is 
due  to  a  still  farther  action  upon  the  starch,  than  the 
one  noticed  in  a  preceding  paragraph.  Not  only  has 
heat  the  power  of  converting  it  into  sugar,  gum,  etc., 
but  certain  acids  also. 

a.  By  mixing  a  certain  portion  of  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  with  starch  in  weighed  quantity,  and  exposing 


USE  OF  SOUR  FOOD-  159 

it  for  some  hours  to  a  graduated  temperature,  we  are 
able  to  produce  sugar;  the  starch  has  been  changed 
by  the  acid.    This  is  done  on  a  large  scale  in  France. 

b.  In  the  souring  of  food  certain  vegetable  acids 
are  formed,  which  possess  the  same  power  as  sulphuric 
acid  :  it  is  even  probable  that  some  portions  of  the 
otherwise  indigestible  woody  fibre  are  also  changed 
into  a  sweet  gummy  substance,  for  this  is  another 
transformation  that  we  are  able  to  effect  by  artificial 
means.  The  result  of  souring,  then,  is  to  bring  the 
cooked  food,  already  partially  altered,  into  a  still  more 
soluble  and  digestible  state.  Probably  no  animal  but 
the  hog  would  be  fond  of  such  food;  but  for  him,  it  is 
easy  to  see  that  it  would  prove  valuable. 

If  the  souring  is  allowed  to  go  too  far,  still  another 
change  takes  place,  by  means  of  which  all  of  the  sugar 
is  converted,  through  fermentation,  first  into  alcohol, 
and  finally  into  vinegar;  in  neither  of  these  states 
would  the  food  be  nutritious,  even  if  animals  could  be 
induced  to  eat  it. 


SECTION  IV.     ON  THE  DIFFERENCES  IN  CERTAIN  CLASSES  OF 
MANURE. 

We  are  by  this  time  fully  able  to  understand  the 
difference  in  the  manures  derived  from  different  classes 
of  animals,  the  young,  the  full  grown,  the  fattening, 
etc. ;  I  will,  therefore,  now  touch  once  more  upon  that 
subject. 

We  have  seen  that  the  young  animal  is  not  only 
constantly  increasing  in  its  bulk,  but  that  it  is  renew- 
ing every  part  much  more  rapidly  than  those  of  ma- 
ture age.  Food  is  for  both  of  these  reasons  required, 
not  only  to  supply  the  large  daily  waste,  but  also  to 
build  up  the  growing  bones,  muscles,  and  all  other 
parts.  Hence  it  results,  that  nearly  every  thing  of 
value  in  the  food  will  be  appropriated,  and  the  manure 


160      MANURE  FROM  GROWING  AND  WORKING  ANIMALS. 

will  be  chiefly  composed  of  indigestible  substances; 
little  being  rejected  that  can  be  made  to  aid  in  increas- 
ing the  body  or  frame. 

a.  In  the  milch  cow,  we  have  a  still  stronger  in- 
stance. Here  every  thing  available  goes  to  the  secre- 
tion of  milk;  even  the  body  becomes  thin  and  ema- 
ciated by  this  constant  drain  :  the  consequence  is,  that 
the  manure  is  poor  and  watery,  containing  only  the 
refuse  of  the  food,  with  the  small  waste  of  the  body. 
These  two  kinds  of  manure,  from  the  milch  cow,  and 
from  the  rapidly  growing  animal,  may  be  considered 
poorest  of  all. 

Manure  from  full  grown  working  animals,  is  usually 
of  excellent  quality.  If  they  work  steadily,  their  food 
must  be  good  in  order  to  keep  them  in  condition:  of 
the  carbon  contained  in  it,  so  much  as  necessary,  and 
this  of  course  the  largest  part,  owing  to  the  amount  of 
exercise  that  they  take,  is  used  in  breathing  ;  and  for 
this  reason  the  manure  is  as  it  were  concentrated,  and 
is  rich  in  nitrogen,  in  phosphates,  and  the  saline  sub- 
stances of  the  food  generally.  All  that  is  above  the 
daily  supply  to  keep  up  the  body,  and  the  bones,  comes 
into  the  manure. 

In  fattening  an  animal,  the  aim  is  simply  to  increase 
the  bulk  of  its  flesh  and  fat;  the  bones  have  attained 
their  full  size  already.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
fatty  matter  in  the  rich  food  given,  is  in  this  case 
appropriated  to  the  increase  of  the  body,  beside  a 
large  portion  of  the  nitrogenous  substances  also;  but 
a  goodly  quantity  of  both  still  goes  into  the  manure, 
and  it  is  rich  in  inorganic  materials. 

These  two  last  varieties  of  manure,  from  full  grown, 
and  from  fattening  animals,  should  be  preserved  with 
much  care.  It  is  proper  for  the  farmer  to  remember, 
that  in  feeding  his  stock  well,  he  is  not  only  increas- 
ing their  weight,  but  is  also  benefiting  his  land  for 
the  future,  by  the  rich  and  powerful  manures  which 


PASTURES  AFFECTED  BY  FEEDING.        161 

they  produce  when  well  fed.  Some  of  the  best  En- 
glish farmers  are  accustomed  to  consider  one  load  of 
manure  from  their  fattening  stock,  equal  to  at  least 
two,  and  sometimes  to  three  loads,  from  the  sheds  and 
yards  where  their  young  stock  is  kept.  This  supe- 
riority is  not  a  matter  of  opinion  only,  but  the  result 
of  experience. 


SECTION  V.  ON  THE  EFFECT  OF  FEEDING  UPON  PASTURES. 

There  is  one  more  point  to  be  noticed,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  difference  in  the  portions  of  food  re- 
tained by  animals  fed  at  various  stages  of  growth, 
and  for  different  purposes.  This  is  relative  to  the 
different  effect  produced  by  them  upon  pastures. 

Where  milch  cows,  or  young  stock  generally,  are 
fed  constantly  upon  a  pasture,  or  meadow,  there  is 
a  rapid  deterioration,  particularly  as  to  the  inor- 
ganic materials  of  the  soil.  The  milch  cow  carries 
away  phosphates,  and  other  valuable  mineral  ingre- 
dients, beside  nitrogenous  bodies,  in  her  milk;  the 
young  animal  does  the  same,  in  its  augmented  body 
and  bones.  Their  manure,  even  if  all  left  upon  the 
soil,  does  not  restore  more  than  a  small  part  of  that 
which  they  take  away;  and  the  richest  pasture  will, 
after  a  time,  begin  to  show  signs  of  exhaustion. 

The  case  of  a  pasture  upon  which  full  grown  ani- 
mals are  fattened,  is  quite  different.  Here  all  of  the 
phosphates,  etc.  which  are  not  required  for  the  body, 
are  restored  to  the  soil;  and  such  a  pasture  may  hold 
out,  with  little  decrease  of  fertility,  for  a  very  long 
period.  If  the  animals  are  at  the  same  time,  as  is 
usual,  fed  with  rich  food  from  sources  foreign  to  the 
farm,  then  the  pasture  may  even  improve  under  such 
a  system  of  pasturing;  the  inorganic  substances  in 
the  soil  may  actually  be  increased,  rather  than  dimi- 
nished, if  the  food  eaten  abounds  in  them.  In  some 
14* 


162  INJURIOUS  PRACTICE  OF  DROVERS. 

parts  of  England,  cattle  are  fed  upon  a  rich  field 
during  the  day,  and  driven  to  a  poor  one  to  pass  the 
night,  as  a  cheap  method  of  manuring. 

This  is  a  somewhat  different  plan  from  one  which  is 
adopted  in  many  of  our  states,  where  it  is  the  practice 
to  let  droves  of  cattle  on  their  way  to  market,  upon 
good  pastures,  for  a  single  night,  or  for  an  hour  or  two 
at  noon.  They  usually  get  little  during  the  day,  and 
of  course  fill  themselves  completely  from  the  pasture, 
depositing  little  compared  with  that  which  they  take 
away.  If  they  were  fed  at  night  with  grain,  or  other 
rich  food,  then  the  practice  might  not  be  so  injudicious. 
As  generally  conducted,  however,  it  tends  directly  to 
the  impoverishment  of  the  pasture.  Every  such  visit 
unregulated  in  any  way,  withdraws  a  considerable 
portion  of  its  material  for  producing  flesh,  fat,  and 
bones,  and  of  course  deducts  to  a  like  extent  from  its 
actual  value.  If  the  farmer  can  supply  the  substances 
abstracted,  for  a  less  sum  than  the  drovers  pay  him, 
he  may  then  be  justified  in  continuing  the  system,  but 
not  otherwise. 


163 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

MILK,  AND  DAIRY  PRODUCE  GENERALLY. 

Properties  of  milk  :  quantities  of  water,  curd,  sugar,  butter ;  the 
ash,  its  composition.  Cream;  ways  of  separation;  richness  of 
milk;  making  of  butter.  Proper  temperature  for  churning: 
with  cream;  with  whole  milk.  Time  proper  to  be  occupied  in 
churning.  Kinds  of  fat  in  butter;  precautions  needed  for  its 
preservation.  Casein.  Cheese;  various  modes  of  making. 
Composition  of  cheese;  of  its  ash.  Temperature  at  which  milk 
should  be  curdled.  Imperfections  of  cheese.  Reasons  for  the 
exhaustion  of  the  pastures  in  dairy  districts.  Perfection  of 
milk  as  food  for  the  young  animal. 

SECTION  I.     THE  COMPOSITION  OF  MILK. 

This  is  an  important  branch  of  agriculture,  and 
one  upon  which  we  have  hitherto  merely  given  some 
passing  hints;  we  will  now  take  it  up  somewhat  in 
detail. 

The  appearance  and  the  usual  qualities  of  milk, 
are  too  well  known  to  require  description  here.  It 
differs  considerably  in  its  composition  as  obtained 
from  different  animals,  but  its  general  nature  is  simi- 
lar in  all  cases.  From  SO  to  90  lbs.  in  every  100  lbs. 
of  cow's  milk,  are  water.  This  quantity  may  be  in- 
creased by  special  feeding  for  this  purpose.  Some 
sellers  of  milk  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  cities, 
who  are  too  conscientious  to  add  pump-water  to  their 
milk,  but  who  still  desire  to  dilute  it,  contrive  to  ef- 
fect their  purpose  by  feeding  their  cows  on  juicy  suc- 
culent food,  containing   much  water;    such  watered 


164  COMPOSITION    OF   MILK. 

milk  they  are  able  to  sell  with  a  safe  conscience, 
though  it  may  be  doubted  if  the  true  morality  of  the 
case  is  much  better  than  if  the  pump  had  been  called 
directly  into  action. 

From  3  to  5  lbs.  in  each  100  lbs.  of  milk,  are  curd, 
or  casein  j  this  is  a  nitrogenous  body  like  gluten,  al- 
bumen, animal  muscle,  and  the  others  we  have 
named  in  a  previous  chapter.  Casein  is  a  white, 
flaky  substance,  and  can  be  separated  from  the  milk 
in  various  ways  ;  these  will  be  specified  when  we 
come  to  write  particularly  of  cheese,  and  cheese 
making.  There  are  also  in  every  100  lbs.,  from  4  to 
5  lbs.  of  a  species  of  sugar,  called  milk  sugar;  this  is 
not  so  sweet  as  cane  sugar,  and  does  not  dissolve  so 
easily  in  water.  It  may  be  obtained  by  evaporating 
down  the  whey,  after  separation  of  the  casein  or  curd. 
In  Switzerland  it  is  made  somewhat  largely,  and  used 
for  food. 

The  butter  or  oil  amounts  to  from  3  to  5  lbs.  in 
every  100  of  milk.  Lastly,  the  ash  is  from  J  to 
|  lb.  in  each  100.  This  ash  is  rich  in  phosphates, 
as  shown  in  the  following  table ;  it  represents  the 
composition  of  two  samples,  each  of  the  ash  from 
1000  lbs.  of  milk 


TABLE   XI. 


Phosphate  of  Lime, *23 

Phosphate  of  Magnesia,   '05 

Chloride  of  Potassium, '14 

Chloride  of  Sodium  (com.  salt),    .  *02 

Free  Soda, -04 


No.  1.  No.  2, 

•34 
•07 
•18 
•03 
•05 


0"50  0*67 

We  shall  refer  to  this  table  again. 

The  butter,  as  stated  above,  is  from  3  to  5  lbs  in 
each  100  of  milk.  It  exists  in  the  form  of  minute 
globules,   scattered  through  the  liquid.     These  glo- 


USE    OF   THE    GALACTOMETER.  165 

bules  of  butter  or  fat  are  enveloped  in  casein  or 
curd,  and  are  a  very  little  lighter  than  the  milk  ;  if 
it  is  left  undisturbed,  they  therefore  rise  slowly  to  the 
surface,  and  form  cream.  If  the  milk  be  much  agi- 
tated and  stirred  about,  the  cream  will  be  much 
longer  in  rising  ;  so  also  if  it  is  in  a  deep  vessel,  as 
a  pail,  in  place  of  shallow  pans.  Warmth  promotes 
its  rising. 

a.  There  is  a  little  instrument  called  the  galacto- 
meter,  intended  to  measure  the  richness  of  milk. 
This  consists  of  a  series  of  graduated  tubes,  which, 
by  means  of  small  divisions,  mark  the  thickness  of 
cream  that  rises  to  their  surface.  It  is  not  a  correct 
instrument,  for  the  reason  that  I  have  already  stated, 
that  cream  does  not  rise  so  well  through  a  deep 
column  of  milk  as  through  a  shallow  one.  The 
quantity  of  cream  then,  indicated  by  a  galactometer, 
will  always  fall  short  of  the  real  proportion  which 
the  milk  contains.  It  may  sometimes  be  of  use,  for 
comparing  the  richness  of  milk  from  various  cows  of 
the  same  dairy. 

When  milk  is  drawn  in  the  usual  way  from  the 
cow,  the  last  of  the  milking  is  much  the  richest :  this 
is  because  the  cream  has,  in  great  part,  risen  to  the  sur- 
face inside  of  the  cow's  udder;  the  portion  last  drawn 
off  then,  of  course  contains  the  most  of  it.  Such  a  fact 
shows  the  importance  of  thorough  and  careful  milk- 
ing. In  some  large  dairies,  the  last  milkings  from 
each  cow  are  collected  in  a  separate  pail.  More 
milk  is  said  to  be  obtained  from  the  same  cow  when 
she  is  milked  three  times  a  day,  than  when  but  once 
or  twice ;  less  when  milked  once  than  twice,  but  in 
this  last  case  it  is  very  rich. 

Some  large  breeds  of  cows,  are  remarkable  for 
giving  very  great  quantities  of  poor  watery  milk : 
other  small  breeds  give  small  quantities  of  a  milk,  that 
contains  an  uncommon  proportion  of  cream.     These 


166  SMALL    COWS   PREFERRED. 

large  breeds  are  kept  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
about  London,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  city. 
By  giving  them  succulent  food,  the  milkmen  contrive 
to  increase  still  farther  the  watery  nature  of  their 
milk,  as  before  noticed. 

The  small  breeds  have  one  great  advantage  :  it 
requires  a  much  less  quantity  of  food  to  supply  the 
wants  of  their  bodies,  so  that  all  over  that  quantity 
goes  to  the  enriching  of  the  milk.  A  weight  of 
food  therefore,  with  which  they  could  give  good  milk, 
would  only  suffice  to  keep  up  the  body  of  the  larger 
animal,  and  the  milk  would  consequently  be  poor  and 
watery.  This  is  probably  one  chief  reason,  why  the 
milk  of  the  small  breeds  generally  excels  so  decidedly 
in  richness. 


SECTION    II.       OF    BUTTER. 

We  are  now  to  consider  the  various  methods  of 
making  butter,  and  some  of  the  questions  connected 
with  its  preservation.  The  object  in  churning,  is  to 
break  up  the  coverings  of  the  little  globules  of 
butter  :  this  is  done  by  continued  dashing  and  agita- 
tion ;  when  it  has  been  continued  for  a  certain  time, 
the  butter  appears  first  in  small  grains,  and  finally 
works  together  into  lumps. 

a.  Where  cream  is  churned,  the  best  practice  seems 
to  be,  to  allow  of  its  becoming  slightly  sour  :  this 
sourness  takes  place  in  the  cheesy  matter,  or  casein, 
that  is  mixed  in  the  cream,  and  has  no  effect  upon 
the  butter  beyond  causing  its  more  speedy  and  perfect 
separation. 

b.  In  many  dairies  the  practice  is  to  churn  the  whole 
milk.  This  requires  larger  churns,  and  is  best  done 
by  the  aid  of  water  or  animal  power:  it  is  considered 
to  produce  more  butter,  and  this  is  said  by  some  to  be 
finer  and  of  better  quality.     I  do  not  think  that  there 


PROPER  TEMPERATURE  FOR  CHURNING.      167 

have  been  any  very  decisive  experiments  upon  this 
point. 

The  excellence  of  butter  is  greatly  influenced  by  the 
temperature  of  the  milk  or  cream,  at  the  time  of 
churning;  if  this  be  either  too  hot  or  too  cold,  it  is 
difficult  to  get  butter  at  all,  and  when  got,  it  is  usually 
of  poor  quality.  A  large  number  of  experiments  have 
been  made  with  regard  to  this  point,  and  the  result 
arrived  at  is,  that  cream  should  be  churned  at  a 
temperature,  when  the  churning  commences,  of  from 
50  to  55  deg.  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  If  whole 
milk  is  used,  the  temperature  should  be  about  65  deg. 
F.  at  commencing.  In  summer,  then,  cream  would 
need  cooling,  and  sometimes  in  winter  a  little  warmth. 
It  is  surprising  how  the  quality  of  the  butter  is  im- 
proved by  attention  to  these  points.  I  have  seen 
churns  made  double,  so  that  warm  water,  or  some 
cooling  mixture,  according  as  the  season  was  winter 
or  summer,  might  be  put  into  the  outer  part.  It  will 
be  seen,  that  in  whatever  way  the  temperature  is  regu- 
lated, a  thermometer  is  a  most  important  accompani- 
ment to  the  dairy. 

The  time  occupied  in  churning,  is  also  a  matter  of 
much  consequence.  Several  churns  have  been  ex- 
hibited lately,  which  will  make  butter  in  from  3  to  10 
minutes,  and  these  are  spoken  of  as  important  im- 
provements. The  most  carefully  conducted  trials  on 
this  point,  have  shown  that  as  the  time  of  churning 
was  shortened,  the  butter  grew  poorer  in  quality;  and 
this  is  consistent  with  reason.  Such  violent  agitation 
as  is  effected  in  these  churns,  separates  the  butter,  it 
is  true,  but  the  globules  are  not  thoroughly  deprived 
of  the  casein  which  covers  them  in  the  milk;  there  is 
consequently  much  cheesy  matter  mingled  with  the 
butter,  which  is  ordinarily  soft,  and  pale,  and  does  not 
keep  well.  Until  the  advocates  of  very  short  time  in 
churning,  can  show  that  the  butter  made  by  their 


168  WASHING   AND   WORKING   OF    BUTTER. 

churns  is  equal  in  quality  to  that  produced  in  the  or- 
dinary time,  farmers  had  better  beware  how  they 
change  their  method,  lest  the  quality  of  their  butter, 
and  consequently  the  reputation  of  their  dairy,  be 
injured. 

Butter  contains  two  kinds  of  fat.  If  melted  in  wa- 
ter at  about  ISO  F.,  a  nearly  colorless  oil  is  obtained, 
which  becomes  solid  on  cooling.  If  the  solid  mass  be 
subjected  to  pressure  in  a  strong  press,  at  about  60  F., 
a  pure  liquid  oil  runs  out,  and  there  remains  a  solid 
white  fat.  The  liquid  fat  is  called  elaine,  and  the 
solid  fat,  margarine.  These  two  bodies  are  present  in 
many  other  animal  and  vegetable  oils  and  fats.  They 
are  both  nearly  tasteless,  and,  when  quite  pure,  will 
keep  without  change  for  a  long  time.  In  presence  of 
certain  impurities,  however,  they  do  change. 

If  great  care  is  not  taken  in  washing  and  working, 
when  making  butter,  some  buttermilk  is  left  enclosed 
in  it;  the  buttermilk,  of  course,  contains  casein,  the 
nitrogenous  body  which  we  have  already  described; 
there  is  also  some  of  the  milk  sugar  mentioned  in  sec- 
tion i.  The  casein,  like  all  other  bodies  containing 
much  nitrogen,  is  very  liable  to  decomposition.  This 
soon  ensues  therefore,  whenever  it  is  contained  in  but- 
ter; and  certain  chemical  transformations  are  by  this 
means  soon  commenced,  whereby  the  margarine  and 
elaine  are  in  part  changed  to  other  and  very  disagree- 
able substances;  those  which  give  the  rancid  taste 
and  smell,  to  bad  butter.  The  milk  sugar  is  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  these  changes.  It  is  de- 
composed into  an  acid  by  the  action  of  the  casein,  and 
has  a  decided  effect  upon  the  fatty  substances  of  but- 
ter, causing  them  to  become  rancid.  This  action  and 
consequent  change  comes  on  more  or  less  rapidly,  as 
the  temperature  is  warmer  or  colder. 

No  matter  how  well  the  butter  is  made  in  other  re- 
spects; if  buttermilk  be  left  in  it,  there  is  always,  from 


SALTING   OF   BUTTER.  169 

the  causes  above  mentioned,  a  liability  to  become 
rancid  and  offensive.  When  packed  in  firkins,  it  will 
be  rancid  next  to  their  sides  and  tops;  will  be  injured 
to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  as  the  air  may  have  obtain- 
ed access.  Salting  will  partially  overcome  the  ten- 
dency to  spoil,  but  not  entirely,  unless  the  butter  is 
made  so  salt  as  to  be  hardly  eatable.  Another  reason 
for  much  of  the  poor  butter,  which  is  unfortunately 
too  common,  is  to  be  found  in  the  impure  quality  of 
the  salt  used.  This  should  not  contain  any  magnesia 
or  lime,  as  both  injure  the  butter;  they  give  it  a  bit- 
ter taste,  and  prevent  its  keeping  for  any  length  of 
time.  Prof.  Johnston  mentions  a  simple  method  of 
freeing  common  salt  from  these  impurities.  It  is  to 
add  to  30  lbs.  of  salt  about  2  qts.  of  boiling  water, 
stirring  the  whole  thoroughly  now  and  then,  and  al- 
lowing it  to  stand  for  two  hours  or  more.  It  may  be 
afterward  hung  up  in  a  bag,  and  allowed  to  drain. 
The  liquid  that  runs  off  is  a  saturated  solution  of  salt, 
with  all  the  magnesia  and  lime  which  were  present. 
These  are  much  more  soluble  than  the  salt,  and  are 
consequently  dissolved  first. 

Want  of  caution  as  to  the  quality  of  salt  used,  and  of 
care  in  separating  the  buttermilk,  cause  the  spoiling 
of  very  great  stocks  of  butter  every  year;  a  large  part 
of  that  sent  to  Europe  is  sold  for  soap  grease,  and  for 
other  common  purposes,  simply  because  these  points 
have  been  neglected. 


SECTION    III,      OF    CASEIN    AND    CHEESE. 

Cheese  is  made  from  the  casein  of  milk:  this  casein 
or  curd,  is  separated  from  the  whey  by  means  of  ren- 
net; the  same  thing  may  be  done  by  small  quantities 
of  acids,  as  acetic  or  hydrochloric  acid;  and  if  the 
milk  be  allowed  to  stand  long,  it  will  be  done  na- 
turally by  the  formation  of  what  is  called  lactic  acid, 
15 


170  ALLUSION    TO    THE    MAKING    OF   CHEESE. 

from  the  milk  sugar.  The  appearance  which  the  curd 
of  milk,  or  the  casein  presents,  when  curdled  either 
by  rennet  or  an  acid,  is  so  well  known  as  to  render 
any  description  unnecessary. 

a.  In  the  analyses  of  the  ash  from  milk,  Table  xi., 
was  mentioned  a  small  quantity  of  free  soda.  This 
being  dissolved  in  milk,  keeps  the  casein  likewise  in 
solution;  but  when  any  of  the  acid  substances  men- 
tioned above  are  added,  they  immediately  unite  with 
and  neutralize  the  soda;  the  liquid  then  of  course  be- 
comes acid,  so  that  the  curd  falls  down  at  once.  Ren- 
net is  not  supposed  to  do  this  by  acting  as  an  acid, 
but  by  promoting  the  formation  of  an  acid  in  the  milk 
itself,  which  does  the  work.  The  milk  is  thus  made 
to  curdle  by  the  action  of  its  own  acid. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  enlarge  upon  the  practical 
methods  of  cheese-making,  nor  upon  the  endless  va- 
rieties of  cheeses  to  be  found  in  this  and  other  coun- 
tries. Scarcely  any  two  districts  have  a  similar  prac- 
tice in  their  manufacture,  or  produce  an  article  at  all 
identical  in  its  taste  or  appearance.  Those  of  some 
districts  would  be  considered  the  reverse  of  excellent 
in  others.  For  instance,  a  variety  most  highly  valued 
in  Paris,  has  undergone  an  incipient  putrefaction,  so  as 
to  evolve  ammonia. 

The  richest  cheeses  are  made  by  adding  the  last 
night's  cream  to  the  morning's  milk.  Such  are  the 
Stilton  cheeses  of  England;  from  these  we  have  them 
all  the  way  down  to  skim  milk,  and,  in  some  counties 
of  England,  to  those  which  are  made  from  milk  that 
'has  been  skimmed  for  three  or  four  days  in  succession. 
Such  as  these  are  perfectly  hard  and  horny.  The 
following  table  from  Prof.  Johnston's  lectures,  gives 
the  composition  of  several  English  and  Scotch  va- 
rieties of  cheese. 


COMPOSITION   OF    CHEESE. 
TABLE    XII. 


171 


In  100  lbs. 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

Water     

Butter    

Ash    

43.82 

45.04 

5.98 

5.18 

35.81 

37.96 

21.97 

4.25 

38.58 

25.00 

50.11 

6.29 

38.46 

25.87 

31.86 

3.81 

No.  1  represents  a  skimmed  milk  cheese:  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  proportion  of  butter  is  very  much  small- 
er than  in  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4;  it  is,  however,  weight  for 
weight,  more  nutritious  than  any  of  the  others.  It 
will  surprise  most  persons,  to  know  that  cheese  con- 
tains from  £  to  \  its  weight  of  water;  and  that  in  eat- 
ing very  rich  cheeses,  fully  ^  of  what  they  eat  is 
butter.  No.  4  is  a  rich  Ayrshire  cheese,  of  the  kind 
with  which  some  of  our  American  dairies  come  espe- 
cially into  competition.  This  was  a  particularly  fine 
sample.  Cheese,  judging  from  the  above  analyses, 
is  both  a  very  nutritious  and  a  very  fattening  food. 
The  richness  of  the  finer  varieties,  prevents  their  being 
eaten  in  large  quantities.  On  skim  milk  cheese,  such 
as  that  in  the  first  column,  a  man  might  live  very 
well  as  a  principal  article  of  diet. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  all  of  these  cheeses  contain 
a  considerable  proportion  of  ash:  this  ash  is  more 
than  half  phosphates,  chiefly  phosphate  of  lime;  of  the 
remainder  a  large  part,  as  might  be  supposed,  is  com- 
mon salt,  that  has  been  added  to  the  cheese  in  curing. 
In  various  districts  there  are  different  ways  of  intro- 
ducing the  salt.  In  some  cases  it  is  all  put  in  before 
the  cheese  is  pressed;  in  others  it  is  all  absorbed  from 
the  exterior,  after  the  cheese  is  made.  This  will  not 
do  for  very  thick  cheeses.  In  making  these,  a  portion 
of  the  curd  is  sometimes  doubly  salted,  and  placed  in 
the  centre;  the  intention  being  to  ensure  that  the  salt 
absorbed  from  the  exterior  shall  penetrate  till  it  meets 


172  PRECAUTIONS    IN   MAKING    CHEESE. 

the  part  already  salted,  so  that  no  part  of  the  cheese 
shall  escape. 

The  temperature  of  the  milk  at  the  time  when 
rennet  is  added,  for  the  purpose  of  curdling  it,  is  a 
matter  of  much  importance  to  the  quality  of  the 
cheese.  The  best  authorities  prescribe  from  90  to 
95  deg.  of  Fahrenheit. 

a.  Great  care  should  be  used  in  expelling  the  whey 
from  the  curd,  and  afterward  from  the  cheese  in  press- 
ing, as  the  milk  sugar  which  the  whey  contains  changes 
its  composition,  as  it  does  in  butter,  and  communicates 
a  disagreeable  flavor  to  the  cheese;  by  this  means 
cracks  are  often  formed,  and  it  becomes  full  of  little 
holes. 

b.  The  use  of  bad  salt  is  another  way  of  effectu- 
ally injuring  the  quality  of  the  cheese,  making  it  bit- 
ter, and  preventing  it  from  keeping  well.  The  im- 
purities of  the  salt  are  here  the  same  as  those  which 
were  mentioned  under  the  head  of  butter,  in  the  pre- 
ceding section;  and  the  method  to  be  adopted  for 
purifying,  is  also  the  same.  Want  of  care  in  pressing 
and  working  out  the  whey,  the  use  of  bad  salt,  and 
neglect  as  to  the  temperature  at  which  the  milk  is 
curdled,  chiefly  operate  in  producing  the  multitude  of 
inferior  cheeses  which  we  find  in  every  market;  not 
destitute  of  richness,  but  miserable  in  appearance  and 
flavor. 


SECTION   IV.       VARIOUS   POINTS    RELATIVE    TO   MILK   AND 
CHEESE. 

From  the  composition  of  the  ash  of  cheese,  as  just 
noticed,  and  that  of  milk,  mentioned  before,  we  can 
easily  see  how  it  is  that  pastures  become  poor  in 
phosphates.  All  that  which  is  sold  off  in  cheese, 
never  returns  to  the  soil;  and  that  fed  to  fattening  ani- 
mals in  milk,  is  also  for  the  most  part  lost.     Beside 


FEEDING    OF    DAIRY    COWS.  173 

the  milk  which  each  cow  gives  for  dairy  purposes, 
there  is  also  her  annual  calf,  the  phosphates  in  the 
bones  of  which  must  also  come  out  of  the  pasture.  It 
is  certain  that  in  the  bones  of  the  calf,  and  in  the 
milk,  each  cow  would  deprive  the  pasture  of  at  least 
50  or  60  lbs.  of  bone  earth,  or  phosphate  of  lime,  in 
each  year.  For  these  reasons  it  is,  that  bones,  as  has 
been  indicated,  are  most  likely  to  prove  of  great  ad- 
vantage as  a  manure  on  worn  out  pastures,  and  also 
on  meadows  that  are  used  in  the  autumn  for  feeding. 
Applied  as  dust,  or  still  better  dissolved  in  sulphuric 
acid,  a  few  bushels  per  acre  (in  the  latter  case  two  is 
enough)  have  been  found  to  produce  a  most  wonder- 
ful effect;  in  many  cases  doubling  and  even  tripling 
the  value  of  pastures,  within  a  year  or  two  after  the 
application. 

The  different  properties  of  milk  which  have  been 
noticed,  suggest  one  or  two  hints  relative  to  the  feed- 
ing of  milch  cows.  We  have  seen  that  the  quantity 
of  milk  may  be  increased  by  feeding  with  watery  suc- 
culent food.  There  is  no  doubt  but  the  quantity  of 
butter  would  be  greatly  augmented,  by  feeding  in  the 
same  manner  as  for  fattening,  with  food  rich  in  oily  or 
fatty  substances.  If  cheese-making  were  the  object, 
varieties  of  food  rich  in  nitrogen,  as  beans,  peas, 
clover,  indian  corn,  etc.,  might  be  expected  to  produce 
a  good  effect. 

In  feeding  with  oily  food,  care  is  to  be  taken  that 
it  is  not  of  a  nature  to  communicate  any  unpleasant 
flavor  to  the  butter.  Linseed  cake  is  an  instance  of 
this;  a  small  proportion  of  it,  given  with  other  food, 
has  an  excellent  influence,  increasing  the  quantity  of 
butter  in  a  marked  degree:  too  much,  however,  gives 
a  very  unpleasant  taste.  This  effect  is  perfectly 
natural;  as  every  one  knows  that  all  strong  tasting 
food  eaten  by  cows,  as  onions,  leeks,  cabbages,  tur- 

15* 


174  NOURISHING   QUALITIES   OF   MILK, 

nips,  etc.,  if  in  considerable  quantity,  impart  a  most 
disagreeable  flavor  to  their  milk. 

"We  are  now  able  to  understand,  how  admirably  milk 
is  fitted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed,  the 
nourishment  of  the  young  animal.  In  its  casein  is 
a  substance  which  furnishes  just  the  material  for 
muscles,  tendons,  and  all  the  solid  flesh  of  the  body. 

The  butter  lubricates  the  joints,  makes  the  skin  soft, 
and  furnishes  the  fat  generally,  beside  being  used  in 
case  of  necessity  for  respiration.  The  milk  sugar  is 
equally  available  with  starch,  and  common  sugar,  for 
the  purpose  of  respiration,  thus  keeping  up  the  heat 
of  the  body. 

Finally,  in  its  ash  we  have  the  phosphates  for 
building  up  the  bones,  the  framework  of  the  body,  and 
other  saline  substances  for  supplying  the  blood  and 
the  flesh  with  their  inorganic  part. 


175 


CHAPTER  XV. 

CONNECTED  RECAPITULATION  OF  THE  VARIOUS 
TOPICS  TREATED  IN  THE  PRECEDING  CHAP- 
TERS. 

We  have  now  gone  over  nearly  all  of  the  ground 
that  I  have  thought  it  advisable  to  traverse,  in  a  trea- 
tise of  this  character.  It  may  be  of  advantage,  in 
closing,  to  give  a  condensed  view  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject, recapitulating  the  main  points  that  have  been 
illustrated  and  explained. 

This  will  serve  as  a  species  of  index,  and  will,  at 
the  same  time,  recall  such  arguments  and  facts  rela- 
tive to  the  various  divisions  indicated,  as  may  have 
been  forgotten. 

CHAPTER  L 

The  art  of  cultivating  the  soil ;  what  this  is,  in  its 
proper  meaning. 

Plants.  Great  division  of  them  into  organic  and 
inorganic  substances.  Organic  bodies  burn  away  ; 
inorganic  bodies  incombustible. 

Names  of  organic  bodies  :  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitro- 
gen, oxygen. 

Carbon,  a  solid,  of  which  charcoal,  plumbago,  and 
the  diamond  are  forms.     Hard,  and  combustible. 

Hydrogen,  a  gas,  colorless,  tasteless,  inodorous,  the 
lightest  body  known.  Inflammable,  explosive  when 
mixed  with  air,  extinguishes  combustion,  and  will 
not  sustain  life. 


176  RECAPITULATION 

Oxygen,  a  gas,  colorless,  tasteless,  inodorous,  not 
inflammable;  supports  combustion  most  energetically; 
supports  life,  both  animal  and  vegetable;  unites  with 
nearly  all  other  bodies,  and  forms  oxides;  most  abun- 
dant of  all  known  substances. 

Nitrogen,  colorless,  tasteless,  inodorous;  does  not 
support  combustion;  does  not  burn  itself;  does  not 
maintain  life. 

The  great  importance,  and  the  vast  diffusion  of  these 
bodies. 

CHAPTER  H. 

The  inorganic  part  of  the  plant. 

Consists  of  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of 
iron,  oxide  of  manganese,  silica,  chlorine,  sulphuric 
acid  (oil  of  vitriol),  phosphoric  acid. 

1.  Potash,  common  potash,  pearlash,  caustic  potash. 

2.  Soda,  caustic  soda,  carbonate  of  soda,  for  wash- 

3.  Lime,  quicklime,  common  limestone,  plaster  of 

paris,  marls  generally. 

4.  Magnesia,   calcined  magnesia,  epsom  salts  (sul- 

phate of  magnesia). 

5.  Oxide  of  iron,  common  iron  rust. 

6.  Oxide  of  manganese,  commercial  black  oxide  of 

manganese. 

7.  Silica,  common  quartz,  flint,  agate,  cornelian,  chal- 

cedony. 

8.  Chlorine,  a  gas;   of  a  green  color,  heavy,  suffo- 

cating odor  ;    does   not  burn,  but  some  metals 
when  finely  powdered,  inflame  in  it. 

9.  Sulphuric  acid,  common  oil  of  vitriol. 

10.  Phosphoric   acid  ;    burn  common  phosphorus,  a 
white,  very  sour  powder. 
These  are  all  present,  in  cultivated  crops,  though 
usually  not  in  large  quantity. 


OF  THE  PRECEDING  CHAPTERS.  177 

CHAPTER  HI. 

Sources  of  the  food  of  plants. 

Their  organic  food  comes  chiefly  from  the  air. 

Carbonic  acid,  a  gas,  heavy,  extinguishes  combus- 
tion, fatal  to  life;  no  color,  slight  acid  taste,  and  pe- 
culiar smell.     Furnishes  carbon  to  plants. 

This  gas  is  absorbed  from  the  atmosphere  by  day, 
through  the  leaves,  and  oxygen  is  at  the  same  time 
given  off;  2sVoth  of  carbonic  acid  exists  in  the 
air. 

How  the  supply  of  it  is  kept  up;  combustion,  re- 
spiration, decomposition. 

The  hydrogen  of  plants  is  obtained  from  water. 

The  oxygen  comes  from  water,  carbonic  acid,  and 
almost  every  form  of  food. 

Nitrogen  is  supplied  by  ammonia  and  nitric  acid. 

Ammonia,  a  gas,  gives  the  smell  to  aqua  ammonia, 
and  to  smelling  salts. 

Nitric  acid,  common  aqua  fortis. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Of  the  organic  substance  of  plants  ;  structure  of  the 
stem,  the  roots,  and  the  branches. 

Principal  bodies  which  make  up  the  organic  part 
of  plants. 

Woody  fibre  the  most  abundant  of  all,  in  stems, 
stalks,  leaves,  etc. 

Starch,  the  leading  substance  in  seeds,  and  in  many 
tubers. 

Sugar.  Gum.  Oils.  Their  nature  and  import- 
ance. 

These  all  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 
only,  the  two  latter  being  in  the  proportions  to  form 


178  RECAPITULATION 

water;  the  same  formula  may  and  does  represent  them 
all. 

Water  consists  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

The  atmosphere  consists  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Composition  of  the  soil. 

We  find  here  also  an  organic,  and  an  inorganic 
part;  the  inorganic  part  largest,  contrary  to  what  was 
observed  in  plants. 

The  organic  part  is  derived  from  the  decay  of  ani- 
mals and  vegetables;  the  inorganic  part  from  the 
decomposition  of  rocks. 

The  inorganic  part  consists  of  the  same  substances 
as  the  inorganic  part  of  plants,  with  the  addition  of 
alumina.  This  is  a  white  substance,  which  gives 
stiffness  to  clays. 

A  very  fertile  soil  contains  all  of  these  substances, 
and  that  in  considerable  quantity. 

One  which  is  fertile  only  with  the  addition  of  ma- 
nure, has  deficiencies  of  some  substances  which  the 
manures  added  supply. 

One  which  is  barren,  has  nearly  every  thing  that  is 
valuable  wanting. 

The  three  principal  varieties  of  rocks,  are  limestones, 
sandstones,  and  clays. 

Soils  may  be  named,  as  one  or  other  of  these  pre- 
dominate. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Mechanical  improvement  of  the  soil. 

Nature  of  the  connection  between  the  soil  and  the 
plant.  Benefit  of  mixing  clay  with  sand,  and  sand 
with  clay. 


OF  THE  PRECEDING  CHAPTERS.  179 

Injuries  arising  from  wetness  of  the  soil.  It  causes 
the  formation  of  vegetable  acids,  and  other  hurtful  sub- 
stances. 

These  defects  to  be  removed  by  draining. 

Drains  to  be  30  to  36  inches  deep,  and  always  co- 
vered. If  made  of  stones,  these  should  be  broken 
small;  if  of  tiles,  these  may  be  either  of  the  round, 
oval,  or  horseshoe  shape.  The  earth  to  be  rammed 
hard  above  them  in  all  cases.  They  ought  to  run 
straight  down  slopes,  and  be  placed  24  to  50  feet 
apart. 

Subsoil  and  trench  ploughing;  difference  in  the  two 
operations,  and  nature  of  their  effect. 

The  inorganic  substances  of  the  soil  are  found  in 
plants,  with  the  single  exception  of  alumina. 

The  quantity  of  some  of  them  is  quite  small  in 
plants,  but  all  are  absolutely  necessary. 

CHAPTER  Vn. 

Effect  of  cropping  upon  the  soil. 

Different  crops  take  away  the  inorganic  substances 
of  the  soil  in  different  proportions;  their  ash  also  va- 
ries in  composition. 

The  grains  contain  chiefly  phosphates. 

Potatoes  and  turnips,  mostly  potash  and  soda. 

Grasses,  for  the  most  part,  lime  and  silica;  straws, 
nearly  all  silica. 

This  explains  the  principle  of  rotation.  One  crop 
may  find  food  when  the  land  has  been  exhausted  for 
another,  and  so  a  succession  may  be  continued  for 
some  years. 

The  value  of  land  is  kept  up  by  such  a  course  for  a 
greatly  increased  length  of  time. 


180  RECAPITULATION 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Of  manures. 

Irrigation,  or  manuring  by  running  water. 

Vegetable  manures,  their  nature*  Not  so  energetic 
in  action  as  some  fertilizers,  but  very  beneficial  to  the 
soil. 

Green  crops  for  ploughing  under.  These  lighten 
and  mellow  the  soil,  add  organic  matter  to  it  drawn 
from  the  air,  and  bring  up  mineral  substances  from 
the  subsoil. 

Straw.  Seaweed  :  valuable  composition  of  its  ash  j 
should  be  applied  in  compost,  or  ploughed  in  fresh. 
Rape  dust,  how  used. 

Animal  manures. 

Flesh,  blood,  hair,  horns,  bones,  etc.  All  quite  rich, 
containing  much  nitrogen,  and  very  valuable. 

The  animal  contains  no  silica. 

Bones  are  best  applied  in  the  form  of  dust,  or  dis- 
solved by  sulphuric  acid. 

Phosphates  of  the  bones,  are  important  to  replace 
those  carried  away  by  the  grain  crops. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Animal  manures  [continued). 

Manures  of  domestic  animals. 

Importance  of  preserving  both  the  solid  and  the 
liquid  parts  of  the  manure;  tanks  are  necessary,  and 
all  other  precautions,  to  prevent  drainage,  exposure, 
and  consequent  loss  of  nitrogen. 

Manure  of  birds  richest  of  all,  having  the  solid  and 
the  liquid  parts  together.  Guano  an  instance  of  this 
class,  very  rich  in  nitrogen  and  in  phosphates. 

Fish,  an  important  manure;  contains  much  nitro- 


OF  THE  PRECEDING  CHAPTERS.  181 

gen,  and  decomposes  easily.  For  this  reason,  it  should 
be  at  once  covered,  or  made  into  compost. 

Saline  and  mineral  manures. 

Lime.  Used  as  quicklime,  slaked  lime,  and  mild, 
or  air-slaked  lime. 

Quicklime  only  to  he  used  where  there  are  no  rich 
manures,  as  when  in  contact  with  them,  it  liberates 
nitrogen,  and  thus  deteriorates  the  manure. 

The  effect  of  lime  in  the  soil,  is  to  decompose  or*- 
ganic  and  inorganic  compounds,  as  well  as  to  furnish 
food  for  plants. 

Marls,  a  form  of  carbonate  of  lime ;  shell  sand  also 
another  form  :   their  beneficial  effect  as  manures. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Saline  and  mineral  manures  {continued). 

Gypsum,  or  plaster  of  paris,  a  compound  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  lime,  valuable  food  for  plants.  Its  good  effects 
in  attracting  gases  and  moisture;  abuse  of  it  by  adding, 
for  a  series  of  years,  without  other  manure. 

Common  salt,  nitrate  of  soda,  nitrate  of  potash 
(saltpetre),  carbonate  of  soda,  etc.,  all  powerful  ma- 
nures. 

None  of  these,  nor  guano,  should  be  in  immediate 
contact  with  the  seed,  and  are  best  applied  in  small 
quantities,  with  half  the  usual  allowance  of  farmyard 
manure.  A  mixture  of  them,  much  better  than  one 
alone. 

Wood  ashes,  coal  ashes,  peat  ashes,  are  all  good 
manures  ;  ought  to  be  kept  from  rain  till  they  are 
used.  Good  to  extirpate  weeds,  and  to  mix  with 
other  things  for  sowing. 

Soot,  a  rich  manure,  contains  much  ammonia  and 
inorganic  substances. 

16 


182  RECAPITULATION 


CHAPTER  XL 

Composition  of  various  crops. 

Wheat  contains  from  50  to  65  per  ct.  of  starchy 
12  to  20  per  ct.  of  gluten,  3  to  5  per  ct.  of  fatty 
matter.  Oats,  barley  and  rye  do  not  differ  greatly  in 
composition. 

Buckwheat  less  nutritious.  Rice  contains  80  per  ck 
of  starch. 

Indian  corn  has  60  per  ct.  of  starch,  oil  about  10 
per  ct.,  protein  substances  12  to  16  per  ct.  ;  is  a  very 
fattening  food. 

In  peas  and  beans  are  starch  about  40  per  ct.,  pro- 
tein 25  to  30  per  ct.,  and  a  little  oil. 

Potatoes  contain  75  per  ct.  of  water,  14  to  20  per 
ct.  of  starch,  and  1  to  2  per  ct.  of  protein. 

Turnips,  beets,  etc.,  have  about  90  per  ct.  of  water, 
and  small  quantities  of  protein,  gum,  sugar,  etc- 
They  make  up  for  the  poor  quality,  by  the  quantity 
of  nutritive  matter  that  they  yield  per  acre,  more 
than  any  other  crops. 

CHAPTER  XH. 

Application  of  crops  in  feeding* 

Nitrogenous  or  protein  bodies  of  the  plant,  are  the 
same  as  those  which  form  the  muscle,  and  all  the 
other  parts  of  the  animal  that  contain  nitrogen. 

The  oily  or  fatty  matters  are  also  nearly  identical 
in  composition. 

The  inorganic  substances  are  the  same  as  in  the 
plant,  with  the  single  exception  of  silica. 

The  plant  is  a  species  of  manufactory,  to  supply 
food  for  the  animal  in  the  most  convenient  form. 

Starch  is  in  great  part  used  up  for  the  purposes  of 
respiration  :  it  is  consumed  by  a  species  of  combus- 


OP  THE  PRECEDING  CHAPTERS.         183 

tion  in  the  lungs  and  blood,  to  keep  the  animal  warm. 
Fat,  gum,  and  sugar,  may  also  serve  the  same  pur- 
pose, when  necessary. 

The  young  animal  should  have  food  containing 
substances  to  increase  its  bulk;   should  not  be  stinted. 

All  animals  exposed  to  cold,  use  up  a  large  portion 
of  their  food  in  keeping  warm. 

The  full  grown  working  animal  only  needs  enough 
food  to  keep  all  of  its  parts  complete  :  does  not  in- 
crease its  bulk;  hence  its  manure  is  richer. 

The  fattening  animal  requires  food  of  such  a 
character  as  to  lay  fat  and  flesh  on  its  frame ;  its 
manure  is  also  valuable,  in  all  cases  it  is  better  as  the 
food  is  richer. 

Various  modes  of  feeding  ;  advantage  of  cutting 
straw,  stalks,  etc. 

CHAPTER  Xm. 

Feeding  (continued.) 

The  system  of  feeding  green  crops;  its  probable 
advantage. 

Feeding  under  shelter;  sheltered  stock  increase 
more  with  less  food. 

Influence  of  the  state  in  which  food  is  given.  Cut, 
cooked,  soured  food;    theories  of  their  action. 

Any  form  usually  better,  so  long  as  the  animal  will 
eat  it,  that  increases  the  ease  of  digestion. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Milk  and  dairy  produce. 

Composition  of  milk. 

Butter  is  a  species  of  fat,  enclosed  in  globules  : 
these  rise  to  the  surface  of  milk,  and  form  cream. 

Temperature  at  which  churning  is  commenced, 
highly  important;  also  the  time  occupied,  a  tolerably 
long  time  probably  best. 


184  CIRCULATION   OF   THE    ELEMENTS. 

Care  to  be  taken  in  separating  buttermilk;  conse- 
quences if  any  remains;  salt  to  be  pure. 

Ash  from  milk  is  particularly  rich  in  phosphates. 

Cheese,  made  from  casein  of  milk,  a  nitrogenous 
body  thrown  down  or  curdled  by  acids. 

Various  qualities  of  cheese,  due  in  a  degree  to  the 
greater  or  less  richness  of  the  milk. 

Care  to  be  taken  in  expelling  whey,  and  necessity 
of  using  pure  salt. 

Milk  should  be  curdled  at  a  certain  temperature. 

Influence  which  selling  off  butter  and  cheese  must 
have  on  pastures,  by  carrying   away  phosphates,  etc. 

This  shows  why  bones  are  so  beneficial  an  appli- 
cation to  pastures. 


I  have  but  a  few  words  to  add  in  conclusion;  these 
relate  to  the  beautiful  and  distinct  connection,  which 
exists  between  each  part  of  the  outline  now  com- 
pleted. We  may  follow  any  particular  substance  in 
its  course  from  the  inanimate  soil  to  the  living  plant, 
from  the  plant  to  the  living  and  conscious  animal,  and 
finally  see  it  return  to  the  soil  once  more.  In  all  of 
its  changes  it  remains  the  same  in  its  nature,  but  is 
constantly  presented  to  us  in  new  forms, 

The  earth,  the  mother  of  all,  from  whose  bosom 
all  forms  of  life  directly  or  indirectly  spring,  and 
also  draw  their  nourishment  during  existence,  is  sure, 
sooner  or  later,  to  attract  her  children  to  her  breast 
again.  The  same  source  from  which  they  drew 
their  life,  receives  them  in  death  and  decay. 

We  see  then  from  these  facts,  that  there  is  an  end- 
less chain  of  circulation,  from  the  earth,  up  through  the 
plant,  to  the  animal,  and  then  again  back  to  the  parent 
earth.  By  watching  this  chain,  and  the  various  trans- 
formations of  matter  during  its  course,  we  may  hope 
ot  grow  constantly  wiser,  in  every  department  of  agri- 


NOTHING    LOST    IN    NATURE.  185 

culture.  We  discover  that  nothing  is  lost :  if  we  burn 
a  piece  of  wood,  it  disappears,  but  has  merely  been 
converted  into  carbonic  acid  and  water,  both  of  which 
are  at  once  ready  to  enter  into  new  combinations. 
The  animal  or  the  plant  dies,  and  also  after  a  time 
disappears;  but  in  its  decay,  every  particle  furnishes 
food  for  a  new  series  of  living  things.  The  farmer 
can  annihilate  nothing,  he  can  only  change  the  form 
of  his  materials:  every  study  which  will  enable  him 
to  do  this  according  to  his  wish,  should  be  pursued 
eagerly    and  perseveringly. 

The  farmer  must  remember  that  all  of  the  substances 
with  which  he  has  to  do,  all  of  the  agents  that  are  at 
his  command,  are  connected  in  their  composition  and 
action  with  the  fourteen  elementary  bodies,  organic 
and  inorganic,  that  have  been  described  in  this  little 
work.  If  he  preserves  them,  or  if  he  adds  them  as 
manures  in  an  improper  form,  his  utmost  exertions 
are  of  little  avail;  if  in  a  proper  form,  his  land 
becomes  fertile,  and  his  returns  all  that  heart 
could  wish.  If  one  is  absent,  the  others  may  all 
be  useless;  if  one  is  present  too  largely,  the  same 
effect  upon  the  action  of  the  others  may  ensue.  How 
immensely  important  then,  and  how  directly  practical 
is  the  knowledge  of  these  elements,  and  of  the  im- 
mense variety  of  combinations  in  which  they  present 
themselves ! 

In  this  connection,  I  wish  to  add  two  chapters  as 
an  appendix,  upon  particular  subjects,  for  which  there 
has  seemed  before  to  be  no  appropriate  place;  and 
WThich  I  have  therefore  omitted  till  now,  rather  than 
interrupt  the  continuity  of  the  preceding  chapters. 

The  first  of  these  subjects,  is  that  of  chemical  ana- 
lysis. So  many  erroneous  views  are  published,  and 
otherwise  disseminated,  on  this  important  branch  of 
study,  that  it  seems  necessary  to  present  here  some 
plain  statements  and  facts,  which  may  in  a  degree 
16* 


186  IMPORTANCE    OF   CHEMICAL    ANALYSIS. 

counteract  the  false  impressions  that  hare  gone  abroad. 
I  shall  endeavour  to  explain  what  a  good  analysis 
ought  to  be,  and  to  give  some  simple  methods  for 
chemical  examinations. 

The  second  subject  will  be  geology.  This  science 
has  been  alluded  to  in  passing,  and  the  nature  of  its 
connection  with  agriculture  partially  explained.  I 
propose  here  to  give  more  details,  and  also  some 
illustrations  as  to  the  laws  which  are  most  important 
to  the  practical  man. 


187 
CHAPTER  XVI. 

OF  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. 
SECTION    I.       THE    TRUE    NATURE    OF    CHEMICAL    ANALYSIS. 

Among  all  of  the  subjects  that  have  been  presented 
to  the  consideration  of  farmers,  since  the  work  of  agri- 
cultural improvement  commenced,  none  has  been  less 
understood,  even  by  many  of  those  who  have  pre- 
tended to  be  its  expounders,  than  that  of  analytical 
chemistry  as  applied  to  agriculture. 

Many  authors  and  speakers  have  labored  to  esta- 
blish it  as  a  fact,  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  chemical 
investigations,  beyond  what  may  be  overcome  by 
a  few  days  of  study :  thus  a  large  portion  of  the 
farming  community  have  been  led  into  the  belief  that 
when  proper  institutions  are  established,  they  them- 
selves, or  at  least  their  children,  may  in  a  few  weeks 
time  do  all  of  their  own  analytical  work;  just  as  they 
do  their  own  ploughing,  and  as  well  as  the  most  ac- 
complished chemist  could  do  it. 

That  such  ideas  as  these  are  totally  at  variance  with 
the  truth,  none  who-  jiave  ever  studied  the  subject 
thoroughly  can  for  a  moment  doubt.  It  is  a  perfectly 
safe  conclusion  when  any  man  asserts,  for  instance, 
the  entire  simplicity  and  ease  of  analysing  a  soil,  that 
his  analyses  would  not  be  of  a  very  accurate  descrip- 
tion. 

Chemistry  is  a  science  that  must  be  studied  earnest- 
ly and  perseveringly,  just  like  any  other  branch  of 
knowledge  which  has  a  wide  range.  In  order  to  know 
what  is  in  a  soil,  and  to  determine  what  are  the  quan- 
tities of  its  constituents,  an  intimate  acquaintance  is 


188  EVILS    RESULTING 

necessary,  not  only  with  the  substances  themselves  in 
their  almost  endless  relations  and  changes;  but  with 
great  numbers  of  other  substances  from  which  they 
must  be  distinguished,  and  with  which  they  are  likely 
to  be  confounded  by  an  inexperienced  person. 

We  can  only  determine  quantities  by  means  of  cer- 
tain chemical  processes  :  most  of  these  depend  on  the 
addition  of  other  bodies,  to  a  solution  in  which 
are  dissolved  those  that  we  wish  to  separate.  Sup- 
pose now  these  bodies  which  are  thus  added  to  be  im- 
pure :  obviously  the  whole  result  will  be  erroneous; 
the  chemist  then,  must  know  how  to  distinguish  wTith 
certainty  between  pure  and  impure  substances,  and  to 
tell  what  the  impurities  are. 

When  he  knows  all  of  these  things,  there  are  still 
a  great  number  of  minor  but  very  important  points, 
that  require  attention.  He  must  use  absolutely  pure 
water,  must  filter  his  liquids  through  paper  that  has 
•very  little  ash,  and  must  weigh  everything  upon  a 
balance  that  is  sensitive  to  at  least  the  tenth  of  a 
grain. 

I  might  go  on  and  mention  other  requisites  to  a 
good  analysis,  but  those  already  noted  are  sufficient 
to  show,  that  great  care,  skill,  and  experience,  are 
absolutely  essential  in  this  business;  that  uninstructed 
persons  must  constantly  be  making  mistakes  of  the 
most  flagrant  description.  The  worst  difficulty  of  all 
is,  that  in  many  cases,  not  having  even  knowledge 
enough  to  know  when  they  have  gone  astray,  they 
actually  rely  upon  their  own  work  as  trustworthy,  and 
lead  others  to  do  so  too. 

Results  produced  by  such  proficients  are  unhappily 
too  common,  and  are  always  productive  of  harm 
wherever  they  go.  The  farmer,  who  knows  little  or 
nothing  of  even  chemical  names,  perhaps  is  not  com- 
petent to  judge  of  a  good  analysis ;  he  can  not  tell  the 
difference  between  a  pretender  to   scientific   know- 


PROM   ERRONEOUS   ANALYSES.  189 

ledge,  and  one  who  really  knows  something  that  is 
true  and  valuable.  He  takes  these  erroneous  analyses 
as  his  guides,  and  probably  falls  at  once  into  some 
serious  mistake,  by  attempting  to  alter  the  supposed 
constitution  of  his  soil.  After  he  has  been  disappointed 
in  this  way  a  few  times,  he  is  very  apt  to  condemn 
all  scientific  agriculture  as  ridiculous,  and  of  no  avail 
for  any  practical  purposes. 

What  I  wish  to  impress  in  this  connection,  is  the 
necessity  of  caution  in  coming  to  such  a  decision.  Let 
it  first  be  considered,  if  the  experiments  to  be  carried 
out  have  been  properly  and  carefully  made,  so  that 
there  could  be  no  mistake  in  that  direction.  Let  it 
next  be  ascertained  that  no  physical  obstacles  are  in 
the  way  of  success,  and  if  it  is  found  beyond  doubt  that 
there  has  been  no  error  from  either  of  these  causes,  then 
let  the  fanner  conclude — not  that  chemistry  and  sci- 
entific investigation  are  useless;  but  that  the  results  of 
analysis  obtained  were  wrongly  interpreted,  or  that  the 
examinations  were  incorrectly  made. 

There  is  truth  in  science,  but  it  is  not  every  one 
who  can  draw  it  out;  and  the  proper  course  in  cases 
of  an  unsatisfactory  nature,  is  to  distrust  the  man,  and 
not  the  general  principles. 

It  is  easy  to  show  that  there  are  very  serious  diffi- 
culties, other  than  those  which  have  been  already  men- 
tioned, in  the  way  of  making  perfect  analyses.  We 
will  take  soils  as  an  instance.  Where  mention  has 
been  made  of  the  inorganic  substances  in  soils,  as  in 
Table  I.  p.  60,  it  must  have  been  noticed  that  the  pro- 
portions of  some  of  them  were  quite  small,  so  much  so 
as  to  seem  of  little  importance.  It  was,  however,  ex- 
plained that  the  presence  of  these  minute  quantities 
was  absolutely  necessary,  so  much  so  that  our  culti- 
vated crops  would  not  thrive  without  them. 

Half  a  pound  of  phosphoric  acid  in  100  lbs.  of 
earth,  is  a  very  unusually  large  proportion,  even  in 


190  GREAT   CARE    AND    SKILL 

our  most  fertile  soils.  Half  a  pound  in  100,  makes 
but  a  small  figure  when  we  come  to  give  the  compo- 
sition of  a  single  pound;  it  is  only  live-thousandths, 
T  o5o  0?  °f  a  pound.  Now  1  lb.  is  a  far  larger  quantity  of 
material  than  can  be  used  with  safety  for  an  accurate 
analysis.  The  instruments  employed,  and  the  various 
methods  of  operation  adopted,  are  such  as,  in  nearly 
all  cases,  to  forbid  the  use  of  a  large  bulk  or  weight 
of  the  substance  to  be  examined.  Consequently  only  a 
small  fraction  of  a  pound  is  worked  upon,  and  from 
this  all  of  the  bodies  present  are  to  be  separated,  even 
down  to  small  parts  of  a  single  grain. 

It  becomes  at  once  obvious,  that  very  great  care, 
very  good  apparatus,  and  no  small  portion  of  skill,  are 
requisite  to  an  analytical  chemist  in  the  determination 
of  these  minute  quantities.  If  any  of  the  chemicals 
used  in  the  analysis  are  impure,  the  impurities  of 
course  have  an  influence  upon  the  result:  hence  the 
chemist  must  know  the  properties  of  many  other  bo- 
dies beside  those  upon  which  he  is  at  work,  in  order 
to  be  sure  that  he  is  not  adding  something  which 
will  prove  injurious  to  the  accuracy  of  his  results. 

There  is  still  another,  among  many  points  that 
might  be  noticed  in  this  connection.  The  processes 
necessary  for  the  determination  of  potash,  soda,  and 
phosphoric  acid,  when  all  are  present  and  in  combi- 
nation with  other  bodies,  are  in  the  last  degree  com- 
plicated and  difficult.  Many  ways  of  determining 
them  are  described  in  books;  some  of  these  are  alto- 
gether faulty,  and  all  require  much  skill  and  know- 
ledge on  the  part  of  the  operator,  that  he  may  avoid 
serious  errors.  These  bodies,  it  will  be  remembered, 
are  among  the  most  important  that  soils  contain,  be- 
cause they  are  most  likely  to  be  exhausted  by  crop- 
ping. A  comparatively  inexperienced  or  uninstructed 
person,  may  determine  iron,  alumina,  or  silica,  those 


ENQUIRED    IN    CONDUCTING    ANNLYSES.  T9T 

bodies  which  make  up  the  bulk  of  soils;  but  when 
they  come  to  the  most  important  part,  the  detection 
and  separation  of  these  small  quantities,  they  proba- 
bly either  fail  to  find  them  at  all,  find  them  when  they 
are  not  there,  or  find  altogether  too  much. 

In  view  of  the  foregoing  remarks,  how  inconsiderater 
and  how  unwise,  are  the  statements  of  those  who  would 
lead  the  fanning  community  to  think  that  each 
man  is  in  a  short  time  to  acquire  the  skill  to  deter- 
mine all  problems  of  a  chemical  nature,  that  may 
present  themselves  in  the  course  of  his  experience.  It 
is  true  that  there  is  nothing  mentioned  above,  which 
can  not  be  acquired  by  any  intelligent  man,  but  he 
can  only  accomplish  it  after  a  long  course  of  study. 
"When  he  has  gone  through  with  this  course,  still  other 
difficulties  present  themselves;  to  make  perfect  ana- 
lyses, he  requires  a  laboratory,  and  rather  expensive 
apparatus  of  various  kinds. 

A  good  analysis  must  have  his  undivided  attention, 
and  even  then  will  occupy  him  not  less  than  from  ten 
days  to  a  fortnight;  and  what  is  to  become  of  his 
farm  in  the  mean  time?  On  the  other  hand,  if  he 
devotes  himself  actively  to  his  practical  pursuits,  as 
every  good  fanner  must,  for  at  least  a  large  part  of 
the  year,  his  chemical  knowledge  rusts,  and  he  soon 
loses  his  facility  and  aptitude  for  making  reliable 
analyses. 

The  truth  is,  that  the  two  pursuits  are  dissimilar: 
*he  chemist  may  and  should  know  much  of  practical 
agriculture,  but  still  his  main  business  must  be  che- 
mistry; the  farmer  may  and  should  know  much  of 
science,  but  his  daily  occupation  must  be  in  the  field. 
His  leisure  time  may  be  most  agreeably  and  profitably 
employed  in  gaining  scientific  knowledge,  but  the 
business  of  analysis,  and  accurate  chemical  investiga- 
tions, must  be  left  with  those  who  are  trained  to  it; 


192         SOME  USEFUL  EXAMINATIONS  MAY  BE  MADE 

all  points  which  practice  alone  can  not  explain,  must 
go  to  them. 

But  some  objectors  continue,  "  It  is  an  immense  tax 
on  the  farmer  that  he  must  have  every  soil  analysed, 
every  manure  thoroughly  examined ;  these  investiga- 
tions are  expensive,  and  are  unattainable  for  this 
reason,  by  the  great  majority  of  the  community."  This 
is  quite  true,  but  it  is  no  less  true  that  the  great  ma- 
jority will  never  require  such  minute  analyses.  If  the 
soils  in  a  particular  district  are  all  formed  from  the 
same  rock,  one  or  two  careful  analyses  will  suffice  to 
determine  the  general  character  of  the  whole.  So 
with  manures;  a  few  analyses  of  any  particular  kind 
will  settle  its  value,  in  whatever  part  of  the  country  it 
may  be  used.  In  cases  where  there  is  any  thing  par- 
ticularly obscure  or  puzzling,  in  a  soil  or  field,  chemi- 
cal analysis  must  be  called  upon  to  solve  the  question. 

In  most  situations,  as  knowledge  of  these  subjects 
increases,  the  intelligent  farmer  will  daily  become 
more  and  more  qualified  to  experiment  himself,  for 
particular  purposes,  using  manures  of  known  compo- 
sition: he  may  thus  frequently  arrive,  unassisted,  at 
just  and  important  conclusions. 

There  are,  moreover,  some  points  upon  which  the 
practical  man  may  experiment,  without  becoming  a 
chemist,  and  without  previous  instruction.  To  a  no- 
tice of  the  more  important  among  these,  I  shall  devote 
the  remainder  of  this  chapter. 


SECTION    II.       AN   ACCOUNT    OF    SOME    SMPLE    CHEMICAL 
TESTS    AND    EXAMINATIONS. 

The  classifying  of  soils  by  means  of  mechanical 
processes,  has  already  been  explained  in  Chapter  V., 
and  it  is  only  necessary  here  to  recal  attention  to  it. 
When  an  analysis  of  this  kind  is  completed,  the  farmer 
has  no  light  thrown  from  it  upon  the  chemical  com- 


BY  THE  PRACTICAL  FARMER  193 

position  of  his  soil,  except  so  far  as  the  silica  and 
alumina,  that  is,  the  sand  and  clay,  are  separated,  and 
their  proportions  known. 

The  following  course  maybe  adopted,  in  case  more 
information  is  desired,  regarding  the  especial  consti- 
tuents of  a  soil. 

1.  Take  a  weighed  half  pound  or  pound  of  the 
soil,  and  boil  it  in  water  for  some  hours:  rain  water  is 
purest.  Then  pour  it  upon  a  filter  of  coarse  porous 
paper,  of  the  kind  that  druggists  use  for  their  nitra- 
tions. The  mode  of  managing  this  operation,  may  be 
seen  in  any  druggist's  shop.  If  the  liquid  does  not 
come  through  clear  at  first,  it  must  be  refiltered  till  it 
is  quite  clear.  The  solution  thus  obtained  is  evapo- 
rated to  dryness,  and  the  solid  residue  burned.  It  will 
blacken  at  first,  by  the  burning  of  its  organic  matter, 
but  afterwards  will  become  white  again. 

a.  It  may  now  be  weighed  on  a  small  apothecaries' 
balance,  and  the  weight  gives  the  percentage  of  in- 
organic matter  soluble  in  water,  that  exists  in  the 
soil. 

b.  This  portion  consists  in  many  soils,  for  the  most 
part,  of  sulphates,  or  carbonates,  of  potash  and  soda. 
There  is  also  commonly  present  some  chloride  of  so 
dium,  or  common  salt. 

These  are  all  valuable  constituents  of  a  soil;  and 
hence,  where  an  experiment  of  this  kind  shows  such 
soluble  matter  to  abound,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
soil  is  well  supplied  with  an  important  portion  of  its 
requisite  substances. 

c.  The  part  soluble  in  water  is  commonly  not 
large :  it  amounts  to  not  more  than  from  one  to  three 
per  cent,  in  many  excellent  soils. 

2.  Take    another  weighed  portion  of  soil,  or  the 

same  which  has  already  been  boiled  in  water,  and 

heat  it  with  some  muriatic  acid  (hydrochloric  acid), 

diluted  by  two  or  three  times  its  bulk  of  water.  After 

17 


194  DIRECTIONS  FOR  CONDUCTING 

standing  a  few  hours,  put  this  also  upon  a  filter,  and 
wash  the  acid  liquid  through. 

a.  Wash  the  residue  upon  the  filter  with  successive 
portions  of  clear  water,  until  it  no  longer  tastes  acid; 
it  may  then  he  burned  until  all  of  the  organic  part  is 
consumed,  and  weighed  when  it  is  cooh  This  weight 
gives  the  percentage  of  insoluble  siliceous  matter  in 
the  soil. 

b.  To  the  filtered  acid  solution,  is  first  added  am- 
monia (common  aqua  ammonia),  till  it  is  no  longer 
acid  but  alkaline;  a  flocculent  precipitate  then  imme- 
diately falls,  being  iron  and  alumina.  If  it  is  of  a 
deep  red  color,  then  iron  predominates,  and  the  con- 
trary  if  it  is  nearly  white.  If  the  precipitate  has  a 
whitish  green  color,  and  reddens  when  exposed  to  the 
air,  then  the  soil  contains  the  protoxide  of  iron,  in 
place  of  the  peroxide.  The  first,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, was  spoken  of  on  p.  62,  as  injurious  to  plants. 
It  is  for  this  reason  important  to  know  which  oxide  is 
present. 

If  it  is  shown  by  the  above  test  to  be  the  protoxide, 
the  solution  must  be  boiled  again  with  an  addition  of 
a  little  nitric  acid  :  this  will  convert  all  of  the  iron 
into  peroxide,  and  it  will  thus  remain  upon  the  filter; 
the  protoxide  would  have  been  partially  washed 
through.  Another  filtering  is  now  necessary.  This 
should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  precipitate  has  settled, 
and  while  the  liquid  is  warm,  so  that  it  may  filter 
more  rapidly.  The  whole  operation  should  be  done 
in  the  shortest  practicable  time,  and  the  liquid  covered 
as  far  as  possible  from  access  of  air. 

From  the  apparent  quantity  of  the  iron  and  alu- 
mina, as  weighed  after  burning,  may  be  judged  with 
tolerable  accuracy  the  proportion  present  in  the  soil. 

c.  If  the  soil  contained  much  lime,  an  effervescence 
would  have  been  seen  at  first,  when  the  acid  was 
added  :    this  is  supposing  the  lime  to  be  contained  as 


IAIN  USEFUL  ANALYSES.  195 

Carbonate,  or  in  combination  with  carbonic  acid,  that 
being  the  most  common  form.  If  it  is  not  present 
as  carbonate,  or  if  this  is  in  so  small  quantity  as  not 
to  show  any  action  with  acid,  there  are  still  means  for 
its  easy  and  certain  detection.  To  the  solution  pre- 
viously rendered  alkaline  by  ammonia,  and  already  fil- 
tered to  separate  iron  and  alumina,  is  to  be  added  a  lit- 
tle common  oxalic  acid.  If  there  be  even  the  smallest 
weighable  quantity  of  lime  present,  a  white  powdery 
precipitate  will  begin  to  fall;  from  the  abundance  of 
this,  may  be  estimated  roughly  the  proportion  of  lime 
in  the  soil. 

All  of  the  above  important  points,  it  will  be  noticed, 
may  be  determined  without  any  necessity  for  expen- 
sive materials  or  apparatus,  by  a  person  of  ordinary 
intelligence.  Easy  as  these  things  seem,  however, 
in  the  description,  so  many  difficulties  will  be  found 
in  practice,  as  will  give  the  operator  some  conception 
of  the  care  and  study  involved  in  a  complete  and  de- 
tailed analysis;  one  where  it  is  intended  to  ensure  the 
greatest  possible  degree  of  accuracy. 

I  have  not  mentioned  any  tests  for  the  presence  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  other  of  the  less  abundant  sub- 
stances; because  their  detection  and  separation  is  so 
difficult,  that  the  inexperienced  beginner  would  only 
run  into  every  description  of  error  while  looking  for 
them. 

It  is  not  a  hard  matter  for  the  farmer  to  arrive  at 
the  probable  value  of  a  marl,  with  quite  a  tolerable 
degree  of  accuracy.  A  weighed  portion  must  be 
taken,  and  diluted  muriatic  acid  added  from  time  to 
time,  until  all  effervescence  has  ceased.  The  mixture 
is  then  boiled,  or  at  least  well  heated,  and  thrown 
upon  a  filter.  The  insoluble  residue  which  remains 
upon  the  filter,  must  be  washed  clean  from  acid,  dried, 
and  weighed  :  this  is  chiefly  silica.  Its  weight,  sub- 
tracted from  the  original  weight  taken,  will,  in  most 


196  DIRECTIONS  FOR  CONDUCTING 

cases,  give  nearly  the  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime 
that  has  been  dissolved  out  by  the  acid.  Small  quan- 
tities of  other  substances  have  been  dissolved  at  the 
same  time,  which  have  been  mentioned  in  a  previous 
chapter,  as  important  to  the  value  of  the  marl;  but 
they  are  only  to  be  separated  by  an  instructed  chemist. 
Since  expensive  manures,  such  as  guano,  have  come 
into  vogue,  the  temptation  to  adulterations  on  the 
part  of  dealers  is  great,  and  farmers  should  be  cau- 
tious in  their  purchases.  By  two  or  three  simple  tests, 
the  comparative  value  of  a  substance  offered  as  a 
guano,  may  be  ascertained.  Table  VI.  p,  106,  will  be 
a  useful  one  for  reference  in  such  a  case. 

1.  A  weighed  portion  may  be  heated  for  some 
hours,  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  that  of  boiling 
water.  The  loss  of  weight  will  then  indicate  the 
amount  of  water  which  the  guano  contained,  and  it 
can  be  referred  with  much  probability  to  one  of  the 
classes  mentioned  in  Table  VI. 

2.  This  dried  portion  may  be  burned,  till  it  has 
ceased  to  lose  weight:  the  loss  is  organic  matter,  and 
salts  of  ammonia;  if  it  is  greater  than  the  largest 
quantity  mentioned  in  Table  VI.,  then  it  is  probable 
that  an  adulteration  has  been  practised,  by  mixing 
some  finely-ground  organic  substance,  such  as  tan- 
bark. 

3.  The  residue  after  burning  should  be  nearly 
white,  not  more  than  about  36  per  cent  of  the  whole 
weight,  and  should  dissolve  almost  entirely  in  muriatic 
acid.  If  a  large  portion  refuses  to  dissolve,  some  solid 
substance  may  have  been  added  as  an  adulteration. 

4.  Some  solid  may  also  have  been  added,  which 
would  dissolve  in  acid;  and  it  therefore  becomes  neces- 
sary to  ascertain  if  that  which  has  dissolved  be  really 
phosphate  of  lime.  This  is  simply  and  easily  done  by 
adding  ammonia,  till  the  acid  solution  has  become 
alkaline  :  if  phosphate  of  lime  be  present,  it  will  im- 


CERTAIN  USEFUL   ANALYSES.  197 

mediately  be  precipitated  in  the  form  of  white  floccu- 
lent  masses,  the  abundance  of  which  may  indicate 
the  proportion  present  in  the  guano. 

5.  It  is  safe  still  farther  to  test  the  organic  matter, 
by  mixing  with  quicklime,  as  described,  page  106.  A 
very  strong  odor  of  ammonia  should  become  percep- 
tible immediately,  and  continue  to  be  given  off  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time. 

The  foregoing  instances  are  of  a  nature  so  simple 
as  to  be  easily  understood,  and  are  sufficient  to  show 
that  the  farmer,  without  becoming  a  chemist,  may 
still  make  some  valuable  experiments  for  his  own  sa- 
tisfaction; and  this  with  such  means  as  are  to  be  found 
in  any  country  village. 

I  might  multiply  cases  of  the  same  nature  to  an 
indefinite  extent,  but  as  this  is  not  an  extended  treatise 
upon  analytical  chemistry,  the  above  illustrations  are 
sufficient  for  the  present  purpose. 

One  great  end  will  be  attained  by  all  who  go 
through  with  such  examinations  as  these,  or  who  ex- 
periment upon  the  various  substances  mentioned  in  the 
previous  chapters.  They  will  soon  familiarize  them- 
selves to  such  an  extent  with  chemical  phenomena, 
and  terms,  that  they  will  be  able,  far  more  readily 
and  perfectly  than  ever  before,  to  comprehend  the 
writings  and  discoveries  of  scientific  men,  and  to  draw 
from  them  truths  profitably  applicable  to  their  own 
pursuits. 


17* 


198 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE    GENERAL  APPLICATIONS   OF   GEOLOGY   TO 
AGRICULTURE. 

Changes  that  the  earth's  surface  has  undergone.  Unstratified  or 
primary  rocks.  Stratified  or  secondary  and  tertiary  rocks. 
Regular  succession  of  the  strata.  Each  stratum  known  by 
characteristic  fossils.  Composition  of  granite,  and  of  traps  or 
basalts.  Differences  in  composition  among  the  stratified  rocka. 
Illustration  by  diagram.  Of  disturbing  causes  which  have  al- 
tered soils.  Drift;  explanation  of  its  nature,  and  theories  of 
its  formation.  Alluvial  deposits.  Practical  advantages  of 
geological  knowledge. 

SECTION  I.      OF  THE    STRATIFED  AND  UNSTRATIFIED  ROCKS. 

Geological  science  explores  the  structure  of  this 
earth's  surface,  to  as  great  a  depth  as  our  means  of 
observation  extend.  In  the  course  of  geological  in- 
vestigations, various  important  and  interesting  laws 
have  been  established. 

It  is  found  that  the  earth  has  been,  before  man 
inhabited  it,  a  scene  of  constant  change  and  convul- 
sion. Forces  from  within  and  without,  have  elevated, 
upheaved,  and  even  overturned,  some  portions  of  its 
surface;  while  others  have  been  overwhelmed,  or  de- 
pressed, in  a  corresponding  degree.  Dry  land  has 
thus  appeared  where  seas  had  flowed,  and  seas  have 
swept  over  what  had  long  been  elevated  above  their 
surface.  But  it  may  be  asked,  how  do  we  know  all 
of  these  facts  1  The  answer  to  this  is  plain  :  simply 
by  investigation  of  existing  rocks,  in  the  phenomena 
connected  with  their  position  and  structure. 


UNSTRATIFIED  A.NL  STRATIFIED  ROCKS.  199 

The  labors  of  geologists  have  resulted  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  certain  great  divisions,  among  the 
rocks  which  present  themselves  for  our  inspection. 
The  leading,  and  grand  division,  is  into  stratified,  and 
unstratiiied  rocks. 

The  unstratified  rocks  are  also  often  called  primary 
rocks,  because  they  occur  below  the  others.  These 
rocks  are  the  granites,  syenites,  traps,  etc.  They  have 
no  arrangement  into  regular  strata,  but  are  confused 
crystallized  masses,  evidently  the  result  of  fusion; 
they  have  all  at  one  time  been  melted  like  lavas,  and 
are,  in  fact,  ancient  lavas,  which,  in  cooling,  have 
assumed  their  present  form.  Occasionally  these  old 
lavas  have  burst  up  through  the  stratified  rocks,  just 
as  volcanic  eruptions  do  now,  and  have  cooled  in  the 
open  air  :  in  such  places  we  have  the  ranges  of  gra- 
nites, and  traps,  or  basalts,  which  cover  so  much  of 
the  earth's  surface. 

The  stratified  rocks  may  be  divided  into  secondary, 
and  tertiary,  formations,  according  to  their  age.  The 
primary  rocks,  as  has  been  stated,  bear  marks  of  fu- 
sion, and  of  having  been  formed  by  heat;  not  so  with 
the  secondary,  and  tertiary  rocks.  Their  materials 
have  evidently  all  been  deposited  by  water,  having  in 
many  cases  undergone  striking  changes  afterward, 
but  always  retaining  marks  of  their  origin.  Some- 
times the  strata  are  thick,  as  in  some  sandstones,  and 
limestones;  sometimes  thin,  like  the  leaves  of  a  book, 
as  in  some  slates. 

a.  An  example  of  stratification  may  be  seen  in 
almost  any  sand  or  clay  bank,  where  the  successive 
deposits  by  water  are  clearly  marked;  some  of  the 
layers  being  quite  thick,  others  very  thin;  some  quite 
level,  and  others  again  very  undulating. 

These  strata  were  of  course  all  deposited  in  regular 
succession,  one  above  another  :  if  there  had  been  no 
subsequent  changes,  then  we  should  only  be  acquaint- 


200         NO  COAL  BELOW  THE  OLD  RED  SANDSTONE. 

ed  with  a  few  of  the  upper  deposits.  But  the  various 
convulsions  of  which  I  have  spoken,  interfered  to  pre- 
vent this  order;  we  consequently  find  the  strata  lying 
•in  all  imaginable  positions,  sometimes  flat,  sometimes 
bent,  sometimes  inclined,  and  sometimes  straight  on 
end  or  vertical.  In  this  way  they  are  all,  even  to  the 
lowest,  in  one  place  and  another,  presented  to  our 
view.  Whatever  convulsions  they  may  have  under- 
gone, however  they  have  been  twisted  and  contorted, 
their  relative  position  to  each  other  is  always  the  same, 
in  whatever  part  of  the  world  they  may  be  found. 

This  is  a  most  important  practical  fact;  as  an  in- 
stance, there  are  many  kinds  of  sandstone  :  under  one 
kind  coal  is  always  found,  and  this  is  called  the  new 
red  sandstone;  but  below  the  coal  is  another,  called 
the  old  red  sandstone.  Where  this  last  occurs,  it  is  a 
positive  certainty  that  no  coal  exists  beneath  it,  and 
consequently  explorations  are  fruitless.  A  person 
unacquainted  wTith  geology,  would  as  soon  look  under 
one  sandstone  formation  as  another,  and  would  there- 
fore be  liable  to  severe  losses.  Such  losses  used  fre- 
quently to  occur,  before  geology  had  arrived  at  its 
present  advanced  state. 

It  is  necessary  to  say  in  a  few  words,  how  these 
various  stratifications  are  distinguished  from  one  ano- 
ther, and  how  their  relative  age  can  be  known  with 
so  much  certainty. 

The  different  geological  examinations  of  which  I 
have  spoken,  show  that  there  were  not  only  vast  alter- 
ations on  this  earth's  surface,  before  man  became  its 
inhabitant;  but  that  race  upon  race,  millions  upon 
millions,  of  animated  creatures,  had  lived  and  died 
here.  With  the  successive  changes  which  have  depo- 
sited the  various  rocks,  whole  classes  of  animals  and 
plants  have  been  swept  from  existence,  and  replaced 
by  others,  differing  perhaps  entirely  inform  and  struc- 
ture.   But  these  races,  though  they  disappeared,  were 


DETERMINATION  OF  SUCCESSIVE  STRATA.  201 

not  annihilated  :  they  were  embalmed,  as  it  were, 
where  they  died;  and  we  can  now  dig  out  from  the 
bowels  of  the  rock,  an  impression,  or  the  frame  itself, 
of  a  fish,  as  clear  and  distinct  as  when  it  first  died; 
or  a  plant,  with  every  little  feathery  leaf  preserved, 
as  perfect  as  when  it  waved  on  that  unknown  land,  or 
floated  in  that  ancient  sea,  long  centuries  before  man 
drew  the  breath  of  life. 

These  are  the  records  which  enable  us  to  read  the 
early  history  of  our  globe;  these  mute  witnesses,  each 
in  its  own  peculiar  rock,  identify  that  rock,  in  what- 
ever part  of  the  world  it  may  occur.  There  is  a 
gradual  progression  in  their  appearance.  The  lowest 
fossiliferous  rocks  contain  but  few  remains,  and  those 
of  species  entirely  dissimilar  to  any  which  now  exist. 
As  we  come  down  from  this  most  remote  antiquity, 
the  fossils  increase  in  number,  and  also  in  their  like- 
ness to  the  forms  of  living  species;  until  at  last,  in 
the  very  latest  formations,  we  find  both  animals  and 
plants  nearly  or  quite  identical  with  some  of  our  ex- 
isting kinds.  A  skilful  geologist  can  always  tell, 
from  its  fossils,  at  what  position  in  the  series  any  rock 
belongs. 

The  number  of  stratified  rocks  is  very  great,  but  it 
is  not  my  present  purpose  even  to  name  them:  I  shall 
only  show,  how  a  knowledge  of  their  composition 
bears  upon  the  practical  cultivation  of  the  soil. 

SECTION  II.     OF   THE   DIFFERENCES   IN   COMPOSITION  AMONG 
THE  VARIOUS  ROCKS. 

All  of  our  rocks,  both  stratified  and  unstratified, 
difFer  in  composition  most  materially.  We  may  take 
first,  two  examples  of  the  primary,  or  unstratified 
class,  granite,  and  basalt,  or  trap. 

Granite  is  a  mixture  of  three  minerals,  called  quartz, 
feldspar,  and  mica.  The  quartz  is  nothing  but  silica; 
in  the  feldspar  and  mica,  there  is   also  silica  with 


202  COMPOSITION  OF  DIFFERENT  ROCKS. 

much  alumina,  and  very  considerable  quantities  of 
potash  or  soda.  There  is  scarcely  any  lime,  and  no 
phosphates,  beyond  perhaps  mere  traces.  Some  varie- 
ties of  granite  do  contain  these  substances  in  fair 
proportions,  but  for  the  most  part  there  is  very  little 
of  either.  Hence  granitic  soils  are  frequently  cold 
and  poor,  particularly  on  the  sides  of  the  hills.  In 
the  valleys  they  are  apt  to  be  better,  as  the  best  part 
of  the  decomposing  minerals  naturally  washes  down 
the  slopes.  The  abundance  of  alumina,  however, 
often  makes  these  soils  quite  stiff. 

The  true  trap  rocks,  or  basaltic  rocks,  also  contain 
feldspar,  but  with  it  an  abundance  of  another  mineral 
called  hornblende;  or  another  still,  called  augite. 
Both  of  these  abound  in  lime,  and  consequently  in 
this  class  of  rocks,  according  to  theory,  we  have  the 
materials  for  producing  soils  superior  to  those  formed 
on  the  granitic  regions.  Practice  supports  the  same 
view;  the  greenstone  traps  and  basalts  almost  inva- 
riably form  strong,  good  soils,  fitted  for  the  successful 
cultivation  of  almost  any  crop.  Some  of  the  richest 
land  in  Scotland  is  on  this  formation. 

The  trap  rocks  vary  in  different  situations,  as  to 
their  proportion  of  lime.  In  nine  samples  examined  by 
Prof.  Johnston,  the  percentage  of  lime  ranged  from 
2  to  more  than  ]0  percent.  These  soils  are  so  rich  in 
some  places,  that  the  surface  is  carted  away  to  spread 
upon  poorer  fields. 

The  same  differences  of  composition  occur  among 
the  stratified  rocks.  Some  form  very  excellent  soils, 
and  others  very  barren  ones.  The  annexed  diagram 
will  show  how  the  soils  alter,  from  what  is  called  the 
cropping  out  of  mineral  strata. 


RELATION  OF  ROCKS  TO  THE  SOIL.  203 

At  a,  the  strata  are  set  up  vertically,  and  are  quite 
thin;  suppose  them  to  differ  considerably  in  composi- 
tion, there  would  be  a  different  soil  in  every  mile  or 
less.  I  once  examined  a  series  of  seven  slate  rocks, 
taken  from  as  many  different  layers  of  slate,  in  the 
same  district.  Four  of  them  were  almost  destitute 
of  lime,  two  had  about  2  per  cent  each,  and  one  had 
nearly  8  per  cent.  How  different  must  have  been  the 
soils  which  these  slates  formed! 

As  we  descend  upon  the  plain,  in  the  diagram,  the 
strata  lie  nearly  horizontal,  and  each  may  perhaps 
cover  a  large  district.  Thus  beginning  at  b,  we  per- 
haps come  upon  a  poor  sandy  soil,  formed  from  some 
inferior  sandstone;  proceeding  along  this  for  fifty 
miles,  we  come  at  d,  upon  a  limestone  of  good  quali- 
ty; here  the  character  of  the  soil  changes  at  once, 
and  we  have  a  rich,  fertile  district. 

At  the  points  where  two  different  strata  meet,  is 
very  likely  to  be  a  good  soil;  because  a  union  of  the 
two  generally  supplies  either  all  that  is  necessary  to 
the  chemical  composition,  or  alters  for  the  better  the 
physical  character  of  the  soil. 

Suppose  e,  in  the  hollow,  to  be  an  exceedingly  wet 
and  tough  clay,  too  tenacious  for  profitable  cultiva- 
tion: at  the  point  b,  where  we  meet  the  poor  sand) 
soil  before  mentioned,  the  sand  mixes  with  the  clay, 
and  forms  ,a  mellow  rich  soil.  At  c,  on  the  hill  side, 
where  the  strata  lie  horizontally,  changes  are  of  course 
more  frequent,  and  the  character  of  the  soils  at  the 
base  is  apt  to  be  affected  by  washing  down  from  those 
above. 

These  differences  in  the  character  of  different  strata, 
explain  also  some  facts  relative  to  the  wetness  of  soils. 
We  often  see  the  side  of  a  steep  hill  very  wet  If  the 
stratum  of  rock  and  soil  at  c  be  stiff,  and  impervious 
to  water,  all  the  rain  which  falls  on  the  country  back 
and  higher  up  will  sink  till  it  comes  to  this  stratum. 


204  GEOLOGICAL  DISTURBANCES. 

It  cannot  penetrate  and  sink  farther,  so  it  follows 
along  this  layer,  till  it  comes  out  above  c,  on  the  side 
of  the  hill,  and  wets  all  of  the  country  below.  On 
the  other  hill  a,  if  the  strata  are  pervious  to  water,  it 
will  all  sink  away,  and  the  soil  will  be  perfectly  dry. 


SECTION  III.  OF  THE  CAUSES  WHICH  HAVE  DISTURBED  THE 
REGULAR  FORMATION  OF  SOILS,  FROM  THEIR  UNDERLY- 
ING ROCKS. 

From  the  foregoing  explanations,  it  might  be  sup- 
posed, that  if  we  know  the  rock  lying  underneath  any 
given  field,  and  can  tell  of  what  that  rock  is  composed, 
we  may  be  able  to  decide  positively  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  the  soil  on  the  surface.  This  is  not,  however, 
always  the  case. 

That  it  is  not  so,  may  be  ascribed  to  the  numerous 
convulsions  of  the  earth's  surface,  which  have  been 
before  mentioned.  Geological  explorations  have 
shown,  that  immense  districts  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  have  no  relations  in  the  character  of  their  sur- 
face, to  the  geological  features  of  the  region;  the 
rocks  which  would  ordinarily  show  themselves  upon 
the  surface,  are  covered,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
by  transported  materials  from  some  other  source.  Such 
observations  as  these,  have  led  to  the  study  of  what 
are  called  the  phenomena  of  drift. 

The  vast  quantities  of  transported  materials,  which 
thus  overlie  original  rocks,  consist,  on  inspection, 
of  the  ruins  of  other  formations  that  have  been 
broken  and  crumbled  down,  and  their  fragments  borne 
to  other  regions  by  some  unknown  power.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  water  has  been  one  chief  agent  in  this 
action;  for  in  nearly  every  case  the  stones  wdiich  occur 
in  drift,  are  water-worn  and  rounded;  thus  showing 
that  they  have  been  rolled  along  in  some  mighty  cur- 
rent, till  all  their  angles  have  worn  away.     We  see 


PHENOMENA   OF    DRIFT.  205 

hard  quartz  rocks,  weighing  many  tons,  that  have 
been  perfectly  rounded  and  smoothed  in  this  way, 
and  can  thence  conjecture  how  fearful  must  have  been 
the  rush  and  the  war  of  elements,  that  produced  such 
effects. 

Geologists  consider  that  there  have  been  several 
periods  of  drift,  on  the  northern  part  of  this  continent; 
all  of  them  being  in  a  westerly  direction,  coming  from 
the  east.  Some  ascribe  it  to  the  action  of  ice,  either 
in  the  form  of  glaciers,  or  icebergs;  others  to  the  up- 
heaval of  the  bottom  in  some  portion  of  the  north  sea, 
sending  an  indescribable  torrent  of  mingled  mud,  ice, 
and  water,  sweeping  over  the  face  of  the  country; 
tearing  away  hills,  scooping  out  valleys,  crumbling 
away  various  strata  of  rock,  and  depositing  their  ma- 
terials in  different  and  often  far  distant  localities. 

The  fact  that  the  rocks  on  the  sides  of  some  of  our 
highest  hills  are  ground  smooth,  and  marked  with 
scratches  and  even  deep  grooves,  in  the  direction 
which  these  currents,  or  masses  of  ice,  took,  shows 
how  irresistible  must  have  been  their  force,  and  how 
great  their  volume. 

In  some  cases,  the  action  of  this  drift  has  been,  to 
cover  up  good  soils,  or  rocks  that  are  capable  of  pro- 
ducing such  soils,  with  immense  accumulations  of 
sand  and  gravel.  In  other  places  it  has  deposited  a 
better  class  of  substances  than  the  original.  On  the 
whole,  it  may  be  considered  that  it  has  done  good,  by 
mixing  the  ruins  of  various  formations;  varying  the 
soil,  and  the  consequent  productions,  over  districts 
that  would  otherwise  have  been  uniform,  and  where 
the  want  of  these  various  materials  might  have  been 
severely  felt,  in  all  the  ordinary  occupations  of  life. 
What  must  have  seemed  at  the  time,  wild  chaotic 
confusion  and  ruin,  was  then  after  all  a  wise  pro- 
vision of  God,  to  prepare  this  continent  more  per- 
fectly for  our  habitation. 

18 


206  FORMATION   OF    SURFACE    SOIL. 

There  are  other  sections,  where  foreign  accumula- 
tions cover  the  original  soil,  and  alter  its  capabilities, 
from  causes  that  we  can  more  fully  comprehend; 
causes  which  are  operating  at  the  present  day.  These 
are  alluvial  plains,  formed  by  substances  deposited 
during  the  annual  overflow  of  rivers.  These,  during 
high  water,  become  charged  in  the  rapid  currents  of 
their  sources,  with  materials  from  all  of  the  formations 
through  which  their  course  lies.  When  the  water 
reaches  the  plains  of  the  low  countries,  where  it  has 
room  to  expand  beyond  its  usual  limits,  a  deposit  of 
these  suspended  substances  takes  place,  as  soon  as  the 
current  is  checked  by  spreading  out  over  the  surface, 
and  its  flow  becomes  tranquil. 

Thus  an  annual  layer  is  formed,  which  in  time 
makes  a  soil  of  great  depth,  and  usually  of  great  fer- 
tility; for  the  reason  that  it  is  a  mixture  from  the 
ruins  of  many  rocks,  and  therefore  likely  to  contain 
all  that  plants  need.  We  have  many  instances  of  such 
soils  in  this  country;  on  the  banks  of  the  Connecticut, 
of  the  Mohawk,  of  the  Mississippi,  and  a  hundred  other 
streams. 

These  causes,  then,  are  sufficient  reasons  for  saying 
that  we  can  not  always  assert  what  any  particular 
soil  will  be,  if  we  know  the  rock  of  the  district  in 
which  it  is  situated.  Our  opinion  upon  such  a  sub- 
ject must  be  given  with  the  reservation — "  If  there 
have  been  no  disturbing  influences."  An  inspection 
of  a  district  by  a  practised  eye,  would  immediately 
detect  any  foreign  deposits,  and  determine  their  cha- 
racter. 

It  is  easy  to  perceive  how  a  knowledge  of  this  sub- 
ject, even  of  a  superficial  nature,  must  be  valuable 
to  a  practical  man.  If  his  soil  is  formed  by  the  de- 
composition of  a  granitic  rock,  he  can  ascertain  with 
little  trouble,  what  are  the  constituents  of  that  rock, 
and  what   are  the  special  manures   most   likely  to 


UTILITY   AND   INTEREST    OF   GEOLOGY.  207 

prove  beneficial  in  his  section.  So  also  if  he  wishes 
to  buy  land  in  a  distant  region,  and  has  no  definite 
knowledge  as  to  its  character;  he  may  determine  its 
probable  quality  at  once,  from  a  good  geological  map. 
If  he  has  cultivated  the  soil  of  some  particular  forma- 
tion, till  he  has  come  to  like  it,  and  to  know  better 
how  to  cultivate  it  than  any  other;  he  may  in  the 
same  manner  learn  where  to  find  for  himself,  or  for 
his  children,  the  same  kind  of  land  in  some  other  dis- 
trict. 

I  may  observe  in  conclusion,  that  while  Geology  is 
thus  practically  useful,  it  also  is  among  the  most  in- 
teresting of  sciences;  for  it  takes  us  back  through 
ages  that  are  past,  and  lays  open  the  early  history  of 
our  globe,  with  its  silent,  yet  speaking,  records  of  ex- 
tinct races,  and  of  sudden  overwhelming  changes. 

Nothing  in  this  world  can  give  such  an  idea  of  an- 
tiquity, as  one  of  these  fossils  that  I  have  mentioned; 
the  remains  of  a  fish,  or  a  shell,  from  some  of  the 
lower  stratified  rocks.  We  are  accustomed  to  think  of 
the  pyramids  as  ancient;  but  this  creature  enjoyed 
life,  and  fulfilled  its  part  in  the  animated  world,  at 
a  period  which  brings  the  pyramids,  in  comparison, 
down  to  things  of  yesterday.  Since  it  died,  race  after 
race,  in  gradual  progression,  has  occupied  the  seas 
and  the  land;  has  in  its  turn  been  sooner  or  later 
swept  away,  to  make  a  part  of  some  new  formation. 
Wide  seas  or  rapid  torrents  have  rolled  over  its 
resting  place;  and  then  again  by  a  new  change,  it 
has  supported  the  immense  growth  of  some  old  fossil 
forest  on  dry  land,  which,  in  its  turn  overwhelmed, 
gave  place  to  other  seas,  containing  still  other  forms 
of  life. 

After  all  these  unnumbered  centuries  of  revolution, 
it  comes  forth  to  the  gaze  of  man  upon  the  earth,  which 
in  its  day  and  generation  it  helped  to  prepare  for  his 


208  CONCLUSION. 

abode;  to  speak  to  him  of  the  infinite  power  of  that 
Being  who  made  them  both. 

It  is  thus  with  everything  in  this  world  of  ours;  on 
every  side  we  are  reminded  of  a  superior,  and  an 
All-wise,  Creator.  We  have  been  tracing  nothing 
but  the  evidences  of  his  wisdom  and  power,  in  the 
simple  yet  beautiful  laws  which  regulate  the  being 
and  growth  of  all  living  things;  and  here  we  have  in 
this  bit  of  stone,  an  evidence  strong  as  doubt  itself 
could  demand,  that  these  same  laws  were  in  operation 
thousands  of  years  before  any  of  our  race  existed. 

To  study  such  laws,  then,  is  a  noble  as  well  as 
attractive  pursuit;  for  they  are  not  to  outlast  us,  as 
they  will  everything  in  the  material  world  around 
us,  whose  existence  and  whose  periodical  changes 
they  regulate. 

Our  bodies,  it  is  true,  will  come  under  the  uni- 
versal power  of  death;  will  be  resolved  once  more 
into  their  various  elements;  will  perform  once  more 
their  part  in  that  great  circle  of  life  which  we  have 
endeavored  to  follow  in  its  varied  round  :  but  our  souls 
will  be  beyond  all  such  influences;  will,  living,  be  acting 
out  an  immortal  destiny,  in  a  world  where  every 
transformation  will  not  be  a  step  toward  ultimate 
decay,  and  where  the  blossoms  of  this  brief  lifetime 
will  ripen  into  the  sweet  or  bitter  fruits  of  eternity. 


E.  H.  PEASE  &  COS 

NEW  EDUCATIONAL  PUBLICATIONS. 


ELEMENTS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  AGRICULTURE: 

Or,   the  Connexion  bet-ween  Science   and  the  Art  of 

Practical  Farming. 

(Prize  Essay  of  the  New- York  State  Agricultural  Society.) 

By  JOHN  P.  NORTON,  M.  A. 

Prof,  of  Scientific  Agriculture  in  Yale  College,  Editor  of  Stephens' 
Book  of  the  Farm,  £c.  fyc. 

1  vol.  12mo.  dark  green  cloth,  and  appropriate  devices  in  Gold 
embossed  on  the  side  and  back. 

New-York  Agricultural  Society, 
January,   1850. 
Extract  from  the  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Professor  Norton's 
work,   entitled    "  Elements  of   Scientific  Agriculture"   (John 
Dellafield,  Esq.,  Oakland;  Hon.  J.  P.  Beeckman,  Esq.,  Kin- 
derhook;  Hon.  George  Geddes,  Fairmount,  Committee). 
"As  a  work  of  science  it  embodies  every  principle  and  funda- 
mental feature  of  Agriculture  which  has  been  developed  to  this 
period,  and  having  the  stamp  of  truth,  arrayed  in  simple  yet  per- 
spicuous language.    It  would  seem  expedient  that  no  effort  should 
be  spared  to  carry  this  work  to  the  home  of  every  man,  whether 
directly  or  remotely  connected  with  the  pursuit  of  agriculture, 
until  science  shall  unfold  to  us  other  facts  and  further  develop- 
ments of  Nature's  laws.     This  work  should  be  the  Elementary 
Text-book  for  every  person,  old  or  young,  who  studies  the  culti- 
vation of  the  earth;  it  should  form  a  prominent  object  in  every 
school  district  of  the  State,  and  be  strong  alike  in  the  affections 
of  teacher  and  pupil.   '  We  adjudge  to  Prof.  Norton  the  Premium 
of  One  Hundred  Dollars.'   A  resolution  was  unanimously  adopted 
by  the  Society,  recommending,  and  also  by  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee directing,  the  printing  of  one  thousand  copies  of  the  Es- 
say, to  be  awarded  as  premiums  of  the  Society." 

I  certify  the  above  abstract  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society 
and  Executive  Committee.  B.  P.  JOHNSON, 

(Copy.)  Corresponding  Secretary. 

SECRETARY'S  OFFICE,  ) 

Department  of  Com.  Schools,     ) 
Albany,  April  20th,  1850. 
Messrs.  E.  H.  Pease  £  Co. : 

Gentlemen:  I  have  examined  the  manuscript  copy,  and  several 
of  the  printed  sheets  of  Prof.  Norton's  "Elements  of  Scientific 
Agriculture,"  and  am  of  opirrion  that  it  is  a  work  of  great  value 
and  interest  to  all  classes  of  the  community,  and  especially  to 
those  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits.  It  is  a  clear,  concise,  and 
full  exposition  of  the  elementary  principles  connected  with  the 


2  E.  H.  Pease  fy  Co's  Educational  Publications. 

science  and  art  of  practical  farming ;  and  I  know  of  no  more  valu- 
able compend  on  this  subject,  that  could  be  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  students  and  pupils  ot  our  academies  and  common  schools. 
I  cordially  and  cheerfully  recommend  it  to  parents  and  teachers, 
and  trust  it  will  find  its  way  into  every  school,  and  every  district 
library.  Very  respectfully,  your  ob't  serv't, 

CHRISTOPHER  MORGAN, 

Superintendent  of  Com.  Schools. 
I  fully  concur  in  the  preceding  recommendation. 

SAMUEL  S.  RANDALL, 

Editor  of  District  School  Journal. 


Extract  from  the  Circular  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 

State  Normal  School  to  the  Graduates,  transmitting  to  each  of 

them  a  copy  of  Professor  Johnston's  Catechism  of  Agricultural 

Chemistry  and  Geology. 

The  earnestness  which  our  Committee  feel  in  this  matter  will 
be  seen  from  the  following  extract,  taken  from  their  last  annual 
report,  made  through  the  Regents  of  the  University,  to  the  Le- 
gislature, February  11,  1850. 

"The  committee,  appreciating  the  great  and  growing  import- 
ance of  agricultural  science,  and  considering  it,  in  its  elementary 
principles,  an  appropriate  subject  for  common  school  instruction; 
and  considering  also,  that  with  the  aid  of  suitable  text  books  now, 
or  soon  to  be  attainable,  the  subject,  always  appropriate,  has  at 
length  become  feasible  for  such  instruction ;  have  recently  assign- 
ed it  to  a  more  prominent  place  than  it  had  before  held  in  the 
Normal  School,  by  making  it  a  separate  or  independent  branch, 
and  requiring  it  to  be  taught  as  an  essential  or  constituent  part 
of  the  course  of  study  pursued  in  the  school.  The  committee,  im- 
pressed, as  they  themselves  are,  with  the  great  importance  of  this 
new  subject  of  study,  hope  to  be  able,  through  their  normal  gra- 
duates, acting  under  a  like  impression,  to  cause  it  to  be  introduced 
into  all  the  schools  taught  by  such  graduates,  and  through  their 
influence  and  that  of  such  schools,  to  cause  it  to  be  finally  adopted 
as  part  of  the  regular  course  of  study  in  all  the  common  schools, 
at  least  in  the  rural  or  agricultural  parts  of  the  state. 

The  committee  have  learned,  with  much  satisfaction,  from  the 
proceedings  of  the  State  Agricultural  Society  at  its  last  annual 
meeting,  that  a  treatise  on  the  subject  above  referred  to,  has  been 
recently  prepared  by  Professor  Norton  and  submitted  to  the  socie- 
ty, who,  after  due  examination,  have  recommended  it  as  a  very 
valuable  production,  specially  appropriate  for  the  use  of  common 
schools,  and  have  directed  it  to  be  published  with  a  view,  as  is 
understood,  to  such  a  use.  Such  a  treatise  at  this  time,  together 
with  the  text  books  already  published  and  in  practical  use,  will, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  committee,  furnish  all  needful  facilities  for 
common  school  instruction  on  the  subject  above  referred  to." 

GEO.  R.  PERKINS,  Principal  of  N.  S. 

Normal  School  Albany,  March,  1850. 


E.  H.  Peine  Sf  CVs  Educational  Publications.  3 

The  Executive  Committee  are  happy  to  express  their  commen- 
dation of  the  above  circular,  prepared  by  Professor  Perkins;  and 
would  respectfully  and  earnestly  urge  upon  the  graduates  of  the 
Normal  School  the  importance  of  introducing  the  study  of  Agri- 
cultural Chemistry  into  the  schools  under  their  charge. 

CHRISTOPHER  MORGAN, 
Chairman  of  the  Executive  Committee. 
GIDEON  HAWLEY,      ) 
WM.  H.  CAMPBELL,  \    Committee. 
CH.    L.  AUSTIN,  ) 

*  Albany,  March,  1850. 

A  Treatise  on  Astronomy,  descriptive,  physical,  and  practi- 
cal, designed  for  schools,  colleges,  and  private  students,  by  H. 
N.  Robinson,  formerly  professor  of  Mathematics,  U.  States 
Navy,   £c. 

The  distinctive  character  of  this  work,  and  that  which  we  think 
should  recommend  it  to  the  attention  of  teachers  and  students  ge- 
nerally, consists  in  this,  that  its  author  has  taken  a  middle  course 
between  the  expressly  popular  expositions  put  forth  by  Herschel, 
Arago,  Mitchell,  ^-c,  in  which  the  geometrical  and  arithmetical 
computations  necessary  to  a  thorough  and  practical  understanding 
of  the  science,  are  either  entirely  omitted  or  barely  alluded  to  in 
such  a  way  as  to  offer  the  least  possible  embarrassment  to  the 
casual  reader ;  and  the  more  heavy  and  exclusively  technical  trea- 
tises, like  those  of  Pearson  and  Delambre,  of  Gum  mere,  #c-, 
which  are  suitable  only  to  those  students  who  are  destined  to  be- 
come professional  astronomers,  and  consequently  require  a  greater 
portion  of  time  and  application  than  is  commonly  found  to  be 
compatible  with  a  course  of  general  studies  at  school  or  college. 

In  the  treatise  of  Prof.  Robinson,  the  student  who  understands 
elementary  geometry,  trigonometry,  and  algebra,  is  led  by  suc- 
cessive and  comparatively  easy  steps  (always  accompanied,  how- 
ever, with  accurate  numerical  formulae  of  computation),  from  the 
first  appearances  offered  to  our  unaided  vision  by  the  bodies  which 
compose  the  astronomical  universe,  to  all  the  more  essential  and 
higher  problems  of  the  solar  system,  comprising  the  simplest  me- 
thods for  the  calculation  of  eclipses  and  occultations,  the  determi- 
nation of  the  orbits  of  the  planets,  etc.  Thus,  either  as  a  work 
complete  and  satisfactory  in  itself,  or  as  an  introduction  to  more 
elaborate  treatises,  we  think  it  cannot  fail  to  prove  highly  advan- 
tageous, and  opportune  to  the  wants  of  the  time. — [N.Y.  Observer. 

The  Treatise  on  Astronomy  is,  without  doubt,  a  valuable 
addition  to  its  class.  The  chief  merits  of  the  work  "are  brevity, 
clearness  of  illustration,  anticipating  the  difficulties  of  the  pupil, 
and  removing  them,  and  bringing  out  all  the  essential  points  of 
the  science." 

Professor  Robinson  informs  us,  and  we  believe  he  is  right,  that 
there  is  a  class  of  works  on  Astronomy,  "  which  consist  of  essays 


4  E.  H.  Pease  fy-  Co's  Educational  Publications. 

and  popular  lectures,"  but  from  which  "little  substantial  know- 
ledge can  be  gathered,  for  they  do  not  teach  astronomy ;  as  a  ge- 
neral thing  they  only  glorify  it."  "  There  is  also,"  he  remarks, 
"  another  class,  in  which  most  of  the  important  facts  are  recorded; 
such  as  the  distances,  magnitudes,  and  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies ;  but  how  these  facts  became  known  is  rarely  explained : 
this  is  what  the  true  searcher  after  science  will  always  demand, 
and  this  book  is  designed  expressly  to  meet  that  demand. — [Ame- 
rican Quarterly  Register,  Philadelphia. 

«  *  9  m>  » 

A  Theoretical  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Algebra,  by  H. 

N.  Robinson,  A.  M.,  formerly  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the 

U.  S.  Navy. 

Prof.  Robinson  seems  to  have  avoided  confusion  in  arrangement 
as  well  as  abstruseness  in  theory.  His  treatise  on  Algebra  is 
both  theoretical  and  practical;  the  explanations  are  easily  under- 
stood, and  the  rules  and  modes  of  operation  direct,  clear  and  brief. 
As  an  example  of  the  former,  he  remarks,  under  the  head  of  sub- 
traction : 

"  We  do  not  approve  of  the  use  of  the  term  subtraction  as  ap- 
plied to  Algebra,  for  in  many  cases  subtraction  appears  like  ad- 
dition, and  addition  like  subtraction.  We  prefer  the  use  of  the 
term  difference.  What  is  the  difference  between  12  and  20  degrees 
of  north  latitude?  This  is  subtraction.  But  when  we  demand  the 
difference  of  latitude  between  6  degrees  north  and  3  degrees  soulh, 
the  result  appears  like  addition ;  for  the  difference  is  really  9  de- 
grees, the  sum  of  6  and  3  This  example  serves  to  explain  the 
true  nature  of  the  sign  minus.  It  is  merely  an  opposition  to  the 
sign  plus  ;  it  is  counting  in  another  direction ;  and  if  we  call  the 
degrees  north  of  the  equator  plus,  we  must  call  those  south  of  it 
minus,  taking  the  equator  as  the  zero  line.  So  it  is  on  the  ther- 
mometer scale — the  divisions  above  zero  are  called  plus  and  those 
below  minus.  Money  due  to  us  may  be  called  plus;  money  that 
we  owe  should  then  be  called  minus — the  one  circumstance  is 
directly  opposite  in  effect  to  the  other.  Indeed  we  can  concieve  of 
no  quantity  less  than  nothing,  as  we  sometimes  express  ourselves." 

This  is  very  plain,  and  can  be  easily  understood  by  any  pupil 
who  has  progressed  as  far  as  the  study  of  Algebra.  The  author 
has  maintained  this  simple  and  clear  method  which  is  adapted  to 
all  capacities  thronghout  his  whole  volume  of  three  hundred  pa- 
ges, thus  making  it  a  useful  treatise  and  text  book  for  schools 
and  universities.  Nothing  is  left  in  obscurity  and  doubt.  From 
the  first  principles  of  the  science  to  the  higher  degrees  of  equa- 
tions, embracing  Sturm's  theory  and  Horner's  method,  there  is 
manifest  a  steady  and  skilful  effort  to  bring  every  thing  to  the 
comprehension  of  the  student. — [Am.  Quarterly  Register. 

D^"  Will  be  issued  in  a  few  days,  The  Harmonia,  a  collection 
of  easy  songs  for  the  use  of  schools  and  social  circles,  by  Solomon 
Cone,  Teacher  of  Music. 


